Stability&Constructability

OptimizationOpportunitiesinthe
Design&ConstructionofUndergroundSpace

ChrisLaughtonPhD,PE,C.Eng.
ProjectManagerforUndergroundDesign&
ConstructionFermiNationalAcceleratorLaboratory.

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OptimizationPotential
Someprojectarerigid>corefunctionsoverride
engineeringpreferencesformoststable&mostpractical
PointConnectingorCorridorsutility,transit,accelerators,
beamlinedetectors(LongBaselines?)..
Miningorecentriclayouts,shorttermaccess,lowFOS

Someprojectsaremoreflexible.
Hydropower,storage(drygoodandfluids),publicspaces
engineerscanpickhostrock,orientations,shapes,dimensions..

DUSELopeningsmayhavesomeflexibilitypotentialto
optimizekeyengineeringaspectsofthedesigntoenhance
selfsupportingabilityofrockandimprovepracticalityand
safetyofconstructionwhilerespectingcorefunctions

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 Space

EndUserRequirements

Alignment,crosssection,volume(detectors),connections..

Structures(enduserdriven)
Soffit:Anchors,partitions,rails,cranes,trays,racks,shields..
Invert:stabilityagainstvibrations,destress,overstress,swell..

Services(ideallysomereuseofconstructionutilities)
HVAC,Water,Power,Communication,DataAcquisition..

ES&H(onsiteandoffsite)
Egress,access,airquality,noise,groundwater,lightingetc..

DocumentNeeds>beforedevelopingsolutions(datafirst)
Integratedesignandconstructionengineerspreferencesintothe
Baseline.
EarlyIntegrationfewerchanges,time/costsavings.

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Geology,Geology,Geology
Explorebeforeyoudraw..pickthebesthostrockmass..
Modicumofdata/rationalanalysesneededatstartsimpleisOK
RMCsguidanceonly~questionableapplicationinhighstress?
Modelingisapowerful,butgoodinputiscritical..garbagein..

LikelyStabilityIssuesatDUSEL:

StressDrivenYieldand/orBurst(overstress)
GravityDrivenFallOut(blocks,wedges,soillikefill)
Waterpressureandinflow(erosion,shearstrengthreduction)
Combinationsoftheabove

EarlySiteInvestigationObjectives(reduceuncertainties):

RockIntactrockstrengths
StressInSituStresslevels/orientations
FractureDiscontinuities
Waterhead,permeability,estimatesflowlocationsandrates)

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DUSELRockMassAssumptions..
BasisofConceptualDesign~data+assumptions
RepresentativeBehaviors(routinevariability)
LocalAdversities~frequency/severity
PreSIBaselineDocumentationofbothKnowns&Unknowns
>nomoresophisticatedthanthedatacansupport!!(KIS,S)
Moreassumptions=morecontingency
Rule#1avoidancepreferredtomitigation(e.g.SIfirst)

PendingSIassumeahard&blockyrockmass
Relativelystrongandabrasiveintactrocks100MPa+
Containingfracturesandfracturezones,somewithwater
Subjecttosignificantstressatdepth

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StabilityofUndergroundOpenings
Underground,twoformsofinstabilityoftenobserved:
1) Geostructurallycontrolled,gravitydriven
processesleadingtoblock/wedgefallout
2) Stressdrivenfailureoryield,leadingtorockburst
orconvergence
(afterMartinetal.IJRM&MS,2003)

Note:structureandstresscanactincombinationto
producefailureandaddingwatercanexacerbate
failureorreducetheFOSagainstfailurethrough
theactionofflowand/orpressure

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OrientationofMajorExcavations
ConsiderOrientationwithrespecttoStressFieldandGeo
Structure(discontinuityboundblocks/wedges)
1)Ifthereisamajorfaultorfracturezoneinthevolumeofa
majorexcavationfindanewsite!(e.gdatabeforedesign!)
2)Ifasingledominantdiscontinuitysetispresent
Minimizegravitydrivenfalloutbyplacingthelongaxisoftheexcavation
subperpendiculartothestrikeofthediscontinuityset.

3)Ifmultiplesetsarepresentavoidplacingthelongaxisparallel
toanygivemoreweighttosetsmostlikelytocauseinstability.
4)Ifhighstressesareunavoidableatasite
Destabilizingforces..gravityalways..rockstress/waterpressuresometimes
Alittlestressandfracturecanaidstability
Minimizeyield,slabbing,rockburstactivityavoidplacingthelongaxisof
theperpendiculartotheprincipalstress(~1530degreesfromparallel,after
Broch,E.1979).

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RockFractureOrientation
SingleSetofplanesofweakness.
StabilityisafunctionofExcavation
Axis:

ExcavationAxisPerpendiculartoDiscontinuityStrike

MaximizeStrikePerpendicular
MinimizeStrikeParallel

Moretypicallymultiplesetsof
planesofweaknesses..
Maximizebyavoidinghavingany
strikeclosetoparalleltoaxis.

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ExcavationParalleltoDiscontinuityStrike

RockFractureSize/ScaleEffects
LargerExcavation>increasedpotentialforblockyfallout
BoredDiameter

8meters

4meters

RockMass
Structureonan
AbsoluteScale
8meters
RockMass
Structureonthe
"TunnelScale"
Tunnel
Diameter

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2meters

High&LowStress
Excavationresultsinstress
redistributionatperimeter:
LowStressorTension:
mobilizedshearstrengthwillbe
lowFailure!
HighStress:locally,tangential
stressesmayexceedrock
strengthFailure!

Aboveconditionscanresultin
fallout(walls,crown)
Geometryoffalloutmateriala
keyconsideration
Ideallyeliminateorlimitthe
zonesofbothhighandlowstress
aroundtheperimeter

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Low Stress
Conditions

High Stress
Conditions

MitigatingStressSectionShape
MinimumBoundary
stressesoccurwhenthe
axisratiosofellipticalor
ovaloidopeningsare
matchedtotheinsitu
stressratioafterHoek+Brown
Nicetokeepthebottom
flat.However,some
designersgothewhole
hog(counterarch..),
Sauer..

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2
2

1
2

HighStressFailureZones
Notalwayspracticaltohave
circular/ellipticalsections..
Stressconcentrationwilloccurasa
functionofstressfield/orientationand
excavationshape
Shadedareasshowwhererockburstor
yieldismostlikelytooccurarounda
horseshoeopeningunderthreetypesof
principalstressorientation..
Vertical
Horizontal
Inclined

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VerticalPrincipalStress

HorizontalPrincipalStress

InclinedPrincipalStress

AfterSelmerOlsen+Broch

StressDrivenInstabilitycanbeSevere
SeverityPrediction?
relativetoVirginStressvs.
IntactStrengthRatio

OverstressFailures

UniaxialCompressiveStrength
UCS,MPa
200

150
Undermoderatestress
regimeaimtoevenoutthe
distributionofstressesto
100
avoidlocalstability
problems,asdiscussed
50
Underhigherstresslocalize
stressconcentrationsto
0
0
reduceunstableareaand
costsofsupport

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0.1

0.2

VAS/UCS
0.3

0.4

50
VerticalAppliedStress,VAS,MPa

AfterHoek+Brown

0.5

100

Section&SupportMitigation
StrategyforMinimizingImpactof
Overstress
VerticalPrincipalStress
Reducepotentialforbuckling/slabbingby
avoidinglongperimeterssubparallelto
principalstresslowexcavations

Vertical Principal Stress

HorizontalandInclinedPrincipalStresses
Focusandsupporthighlystressedvolumeat
discretelocationsaroundthesectionby
increasingradiiofcurvatureofsectionto
concentrateloading

Horizontal Principal Stress

boltsupportcanbeusedtostabilizeareas
ofconcentratedloading

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Inclined Principal Stress

afterSelmerOlsen+Broch

MitigationStep:OpeningSeparation
Virginstressconditionsare
modifiedwhenopeningsaremade,
attheperimeter(hydrostaticstress)

stress

Radialstresszero
Tangentialstress2xvirgin

tangential
radial

2circularopenings
Shareddiameter,a
Inhydrostaticstressfield
MinimalInteractionifdistance
betweenopeningscentersisgreater
than6a

Inhighstresssituations,ensure
openingsdonotoverlyencroach
onzonesofinfluence

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distancefromtunnelwall

DI,II 6a

II

AfterBrady&Brown

Methods&MeansAssumptions
DrillandBlastpreferred
FlexibleHeadingOperationscanAccommodate
AlignmentandSectionChanges
SupportandTreatmentChanges
PreConditioning/CautiousBlastingOptions

TBMscapableofhigherproductivity,but
RigidHeadingOperations
Changes>MajorUtilizationdrops(~5090%)

PotentialR&Dtoolexploratorylong,straighttunnels+uniform,goodrock

RoadheadersHardRockChallenged
PotentialR&Dtollref.ICUTROCinitiative

Raise/BlindBoreEquipment
Inclined/VerticalShaftDrilling

StabilizationMeasures
BoltsandCables(prepostreinforcement..)
SuperSkins/Liners(sprayon,cip..)
FinalLiners(Paint,shotcrete,Gunite,.waterproofing..)

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DesigningPracticalSolutions
UndergroundConstructionEngineersoften
complainthatthedesignofastructureisnot
alwaysmadewithduerespecttomodern
construction.(Brannsfor&Nord,Skanska)
Toimprovetheconstructabilityofunderground
structuresitisworthwhileincludingactive
constructionengineersinthedevelopmentofthe
designconcepts..(Laughton,01)
Someexamplesonimprovingconstructability..

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LayoutforOptimizedConstruction
Ingeneralcapitalcostsundergroundareproductivitydriven
InTunnels..MinimizeLayoutGymnasticsAvoid

Steepramps(>810%)=significantproductivityreductions(haulageetc.)
Longcurveslongstraightsections/shortswitchbackspreferred
Miningincloseproximitytoexistingstructurescautiousblastingisslower
Multipasssections>uselargestmechanizedequipmentthatcangetdown!
RoutineChanges>standardizeexcavation/supportprocedureswhenpossible
Incompatibilitiesbetweenequipment/materialssystems>matchcapacities/sizes
Impracticalsectiontransitions>design/drawasitwillbebuilt

Additionally...inMultiPassOperations/CavernsAvoid
BottomsupMining>prefertopdownworkunderasupportedcrown
Wide,shortexcavationswithhighspan:depthratios>benchedvolumesgivehigher
productivity/requirelessreinforcementcomparedtoheadings

InWetGroundAvoid
Downhillminingachievegravitydrainage

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Practicalities..SectionsTransitions
Rightangledintersectionscanbeproblematic
Drill/blastwilltypicallyproducebellshaped
transitionswhynotdrawitlikethat(endusermight
beabletobetteradaptinstallationstoreality!)?

Difficulttominetolineandgrade
Liabletobeunderlowstress/tension
Chamber
Tunnel

SelmerOlsen&Broch

Chamber
Tunnel

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LongSection

Practicalities..AccessTunnels
Excavationmethodsoftodaymakeitpossibletouselong
inclineddrifts..providedthatthedriftsarecorrectlyshaped,
sothatmaximumtransportcapacityisobtained.Thiscannot
beachievedbyconstructingthedriftsasspirals:curves
shouldbekepttoaminimumandbeasshortaspossible.
Straightreachespromotehighspeedandconsequently
greatercapacity(alsoyieldsimprovedvisibility/safety,ideal
passingplacesetc..).

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Plan

Practicalities..ShaftAccess
Rockfallsareoftenaproblemiftheshaftopens
outdirectlyintotherockcavernwhereworkisin
progress.Itisthereforebettertopositionthe
shaftsomewhattoonesideandmakea
horizontalconnection.

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CrossSection

Practicalities..CavernAccess
Itisnotalwaysselfevidentwhereanaditshould
enterinarockcavern.
Generalagreementthatiftherockcavernisshort,
<150m,theaditshouldcomeinattheend.
Wherethecavernislonger,itmaybemorecost
effectivetostartinthemiddleandworktwofaces.

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PlanView

PracticalitiesCavernAccess
Thecavernlongsectionshownbelowissuitable
forrockcavernswherevolumeisafunctional
demand.Noextratunneltunnelisconstructedfor
excvatingthebenches:itissufficienttohavean
inclineddriftintherockcavern.

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LongSection

CavernCostStudyLayout
Economyinrockcavernconstructionoilstorage..
Lookingforthecheapestunitvolume
Norwegianexperienceinhardrockatrelatively
shallowdepth(stressanoccasionalaproblem)
afterE.DJohansen,79.
Access Tunnel

LongSection

CrossSection

Top Headings
Bench 1
Bench 2
Bench 3

HardRockCavernCostModelGeometry

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CavernCostStudyFindings
ExcavationCosts
Unitcost(Nk/m3)reducedas
spanincreased
Reductionmostmarkedinthe
1020mspanrange

ReinforcementCosts

80
BadRock
60

Ingoodrockslightdropin
unitcost(Nk/m3)calculated
withincreasedspan(1020m
range)
Whenrockconditionsareless
favorable,thecostsof
reinforcementcanincrease
rapidlywithincreasingspan.

Excavation&ReinforcementCostsNk/m3

GoodRock
40
Excavation
20

DraftLayout

15
20
25
Span,m(TopHeading&3Benchesseemodelconfiguration)

CavernCostStudyConclusions

RockCavernswithSpans>20m
Reductionsinexcavationcost~
relativelysmallcomparedtopotential
forincreaseinreinforcementcost
Many20m+cavernshavebeenbuilt,but

Reinforcementneedscanincreaserapidly
Designersandbuildersperceptionofrisk
willbecriticaltoaffordability>how
goodistheground?,howwellareits
characteristicsknown?
Reservedetaileddesignuntiltheground
isadequatelycharacterizedconduct
tradeoffdesign/coststudiesbefore
committingtoalargespandesign

ApproximateCavernSpan,m
20
40
60
LEP
LHC
(CERN) (CERN)

KoreaInvisibleMassSearch
(YangYangHEPPS)

SuperKamikande
GranSasso (KamiokaMine)
(RoadTunnel)
SNOLab
(CreightonMine)

Choosingaspangreaterthantherock
WesternDeep
(CrusherRoom)
masscanreasonablyallowisthegreatest 3
erroradesignercanmake,after
ApproximateDepth,km
Johansen

DraftLayout

Gjovik
(IceRink)

DomedCavern
PrismaticCavern

OnePossibleGenericLabLayout
DominantRockStructure

CleanLaboratorySpace

Services(HVAC,Power,Comm.,SharedSpaceetc..)

AirFlow
DirtyLaboratorySpace

ExcavationAxes

AirFlow

strike

ShaftorRamp

ExcavationAxes
People..................................

PrincipalInSituStress

Machines/Materials...........

ServiceCavern..................
ExperimentCavern..........

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ContractOptimization

ClearDefinitions

Scopeincludinggroundbehaviors
AcceptabilityofAlternates
Allowbiddertomatchfacilitytohis/herspecificskillse/tools/materials

Riskregister/allocate/address

Riskallocatedtopartybestabletoaddressit
Prequalify
Streamlinedrolesandresponsibilities
Authorityandresponsibilitiesaligned

Realtime,onsitedecisionmaking
Variableconditions=variableresponse(inmanycontractssomevariability
maybepotentiallyunexpected..DSC)
Agreementonrangeoftreatment,excavationandsupportoptions(Design
asyougo!)

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ConceptDevelopmentSteps
1)FindaVolumeofRockMassSuitabletoHousetheRequired
UndergroundOpening(s)
Tieintoexistingexcavationsetc..

2)OrientationofLongAxis
3)CrosssectionalSizeandShape
4)InterSpacingBetweenExcavations

Ensurethatthecostsandcontingenciesthataredevelopedtrulyreflect
theuncertaintiesintherockmassconditionsandtheconstruction
process
afterSelmerOlsen&Broch

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SummaryConceptOptimization
Notrocketsciencebutamodicumofengineeringinputduringthe
conceptdevelopmentmayreducecostandrisk..
Notonly..EndUserNeeds
Butalso..(ifyouneeditwecanbuildit,butwedprefer..)
DesignEngineerPreferred(Stability)
Characterizepotentialadversegroundbehavior(s)toincluderealisticworstcase
scenarios(forewarnedforearmed)
Identifythebestrockcompatibleengineeringsolution(s)

ConstructionEngineerPreferred(Practical,CostEffective)
Meetenduseddemandsmoresafelyandatlowercostandrisk
accommodatedesignersrangeofadversegroundconditions/behaviors
Assumeschangeisacceptable(Constructability,VEReviewframework)

Earlyintegrationofneedsandpreferencesiskey
Explorebeforeyoudraw>whenpossibleletgeologyguidedesign
(easiertochangethedesignthantherock!)

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OtherOpportunities..
Proposal#99:WineStorage?

LargeElectronPositron

CentralCaliforniaWineCave

ThanksforYourAttention

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