RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY I
TASK 4

RESEARC
H DESIGN

SITI HAJAR
BINTI
MOHAMAD
NASER
P84380

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
To determine the relationship
between
one
thing
(an
independent
variable)
and
another
(a
dependent
or
outcome
variable)
in
a
population (Hopkins, 2008)

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
DESIGN
Descriptive Study
Correlational Study (Kolerasi)
Casual Comparative Study
(Penyelidikan Penyebab dan
Perbandingan)
Experimental Study

DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
no attempt is made to change behavior
or conditions
to determine and report the way things
are
does not try to control a variable
In human research, a descriptive study
can provide information about the
naturally
occurring
health
status,
behavior,
attitudes
or
other
characteristics of a particular group.

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE
STUDY
1) Observational
2) Survey
) Participants answer questions
administered through interviews
or questionnaires. After
participants answer the
questions, researchers describe
the responses given

Open-ended questions allow for a greater

variety of responses from participants but are
diffi cult to analyze statistically because the
data must be coded or reduced in some
manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to
analyze statistically, but they seriously limit
the responses that participants can give. Many
researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale
because its very easy to analyze statistically.
(Jackson, 2009, p. 89)
Example of study:
A Description Of How Second-grade Students
Spend Their Time During School Holidays

CORRELATIONAL STUDY
correlationalstudies can suggest that there
is a relationship between two variables, they
cannot prove that one variable causes a
change in another variable
variables are not manipulated; they are only
identifi ed and are studied as they occur in a
natural setting.
Example of study:
The Relationships Between The Types Of
Activities Used In English Classrooms And
Student Achievement

CASUAL COMPARATIVE
STUDY/EX POST FACTO
to determine the cause or consequences of
diff erences that already exist between or
among groups of individual
involve two (or more) groups and one
independent variable
involve comparison
Example of study:
Do Adults From Low SES Backgrounds Have A
Higher Retirement Rate In Companies Than
Adults From Middle Class Backgrounds?

DESIGN OF CAUSALCOMPARATIVE RESEARCH

The researcher selects two comparison
groups.
Groups may diff er in two ways:
One group possesses a characteristic
that the other does not.
Each group has the characteristic, but
to differing degrees or amounts.

TYPES OF CAUSALCOMPARATIVE RESEARCH

DESIGNS

1) Retrospective Causal-comparative
Research
- starting with an eff ect and seeking
possible causes
2) Prospective Causal-comparative
Research
- researcher initiates a study
beginning with the causes and is
determined to investigate the eff ects of
a condition

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
A study in which a treatment,
procedure, or program is intentionally
introduced and a result or outcome is
observed.
There are three important factors in
conducting an experimental study:
1) Manipulation
A controlled change that is introduced
by the research such as an alteration of
the environment, a program or a
treatment.

2) Control
to prevent outside factors from
influencing the study outcome
3) Random Assignment
means that if there are groups or
treatments in the experiment,
participants are assigned to these
groups or treatments, or randomly
(like the flip of a coin)

DEFINING QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Use words rather than numbers to describe
fi ndings.
Assume a dynamic reality.
Emphasize seeing the world from the
perspective of the participants.
Goal is understanding rather than prediction.
Emphasize the subjective dimensions of
human experiences.
Holistic rather than reductionistic.
Associated with the interpretive approach
which is discovery oriented, explanatory,
descriptive, and inductive in nature.

Qualitative research is
complementary to quantitative
research.
Both processes produce
different kinds of knowledge
that are valued by the
profession and both are needed
to promote excellence in
practice.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Fixed
research question, hypothesis, sample, instrument and
analysis all specifi ed clearly at the outset; do not
change:
e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology, some
experimental case studies
Flexible
some aspects planned in advance, others develop
during study:
e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, some action
research (including experimental), case studies
Responsive
minimum advance planning, must show links between
data and emerging design:
e.g., grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative
inquiry, feminist research, participative action research,

INTERVIEWS
Primary strategy, or in conjunction with
observation, document analysis, or other
techniques.
) uses open-ended questions that allow for
individual variations.
Three types: 1) informal, conversational; 2)
semi-structured; and 3) standardized, openended.
Interview guide or "schedule" - list of
questions or general to be explored during
each interview.

INTERVIEWS
Informal researcher is required to
recollect discussion
Unstructured e.g. ethnographic
interviewing researcher allows interview
to proceed at respondents pace and
subjects to vary by interviewee (to an
extent)
Semi-structured researcher uses an
interview guide
Structured researcher uses identical
stimuli and adheres to interview schedule

OBSERVATIONS
Observation of participants in the context of a
natural scene.
observational data used for the purpose of
description
leads to deeper understandings than interviews
alone
skilled observer is trained in the process of
monitoring both verbal and nonverbal cues, and
in the use of concrete, unambiguous, descriptive
language.
Recording Data.
Field notes, may also use photographs,

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
Phenomenological
Ethnographic
Grounded Theory
Historical
Case Study

PHENOMENOLOGICAL
Describes the structures of experience as they present
themselves to consciousness, without recourse to
theory, deduction, or assumption from other disciplines.
In a phenomenological study, you use a combination of
methods, such as conducting interviews, reading
documents, watching videos, or visiting places and
events, to understand the meaning participants place
on whatever's being examined.
You rely on the participants' own perspectives to
provide insight into their motivations.
In a phenomenological study, you often conduct a lot of
interviews,usually between 5 and 25 for common
themes, to build a suffi cient dataset to look for
emerging themes and to use other participants to
validate your fi ndings.

ETHNOGRAPHIC
Focuses on the sociology of meaning through
close fi eld observation of sociocultural
phenomena. Typically, it focuses on a
community.
In ethnography, you immerse yourself in the
target participants' environment to understand
the goals, cultures, challenges, motivations, and
themes that emerge.
Ethnography has its roots in cultural
anthropology where researchers immerse
themselves within a culture, often for years.
Rather than relying on interviews or surveys,
you experience the environment fi rst hand, and

GROUNDED THEORY
This theory is developed inductively from a
corpus of data acquired by a participantobserver.
Whereas a phenomenological study looks to
describe the essence of an activity or event,
grounded theory looks to provide an explanation
or theory behind the events.
Use primarily interviews and existing documents
to build a theory based on the data. You go
through a series of open andaxial coding
techniquesto identify themes and build the
theory.

Sample sizes are often also largerbetween

20 to 60with these studies to better
establish a theory.
Grounded theory can help inform design
decisions by better understanding how a
community of users currently use a product or
perform tasks.

HISTORICAL
Systematic collection and objective evaluation of
data related to past occurrences in order to test
hypotheses concerning causes, eff ects, or trends
of these events that may help to explain present
events and anticipate future events.
Historical research seeks not only to discover
the events of the past but to relate these past
events to the present and to the future.
Uses primary sources- oral histories, written
records, diaries, eyewitnesses, pictorial sources,
and physical evidence (relics and artifacts)

CASE STUDY
Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by
studying in depth a single case example of
the phenomena. The case can be an individual
person, an event, a group, or an institution.
A case study involves a deep understanding
through multiple types of data sources.
Case studies can be explanatory, exploratory,
or describing an event.
Data may be collected through
questionnaires, interviews, observations, or
written accounts by the subjects.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Qualitative techniques are

extremely useful when a
subject is too complex be
answered by a simple yes
or nohypothesis.

Qualitative methods still

require a lot of careful
thought and planning, to
ensure that the results
obtained are as accurate
as possible.
Qualitative data cannot be
mathematically analyzed in
the same comprehensive
way as quantitative results,
so can only give a guide to
general trends.
It is a lot more open to
personal opinion and
judgment, and so can only
ever give observations

These types of designs are

much easier to plan and
carry out.

They are also useful when

budgetary decisions have
to be taken into account.

SUMMARY
Method

Focus

Sample
Size

Data
Collection

Phenomenologi
cal

Considers how the

experience of particular
participants exhibits a
unique perspective

5 to 25

Interviews

Ethnography

Studies cultural patterns

and perspectives of
participants in their
natural settings

--

Observation &
interviews

Grounded
Theory

Investigates how
inductively-derived theory
about phenomenon is
grounded in the data of a
particular setting

20 to 60

Interviews, then
open and axial
coding

Historical

Studies available data to

study, understand, and
interpret past events

--

Documents,
diaries, written
records, relics,
artifacts

Case Study

Examines the

--

Interviews,

PERCEPTION OF
STUDENTS IN
LEARNING
LITERATURE
COMPONENTS IN
ESL CLASSROOM

RESEARCH
DESIGN

THE
END..