EED 2008: Electromagnetic

Theory
zgr TAMER

Vectors Divergence and Stokes

Theorem

Vector integration

Linear integrals
Vector area and surface integrals
Volume integrals

Line Integral

The line integral is the

integral of the tangential
component of A along
b

Curve
L
Adl A cos dl

Closed contour integral

(abca)
Adl

Circulation
of A around L
L

A is a vector field

Surface Integral (flux)

Vector field A containing
the smooth surface S
Also called; Flux of A
through
S

A cos dS Aan dS AdS

Closed Surface Integral

of A from S
Net outward flux

AdS
S

A is a vector field

Volume Integral

V
Integral of scalar

over the volume V

dV fV dxdydz
V

fV dddz
V

fV r 2 sin drdd
V

Vector Differential Operator

The vector differential operator (gradient

operator), is not a vector in itself, but when it
operates on a scalar function, for example, a
vector ensues.
d
d
d
ax a y az
dx
dy
dz
d
d
d

ax
a y az
d
d
dz
d
d
d
ar
a
a
dr
rd
r sin d

Gradient
Physical meaning of T :
A variable position vector r to describe an isothermal surface :
T

T ( x, y , z ) C
Since dr lies on the isothermal plane
and

dT 0

dr

dr T dT 0

Thus, T must be perpendicular to dr.

Since dr lies in any direction on the plane,
T must be perpendicular to the tangent plane at r.

T is a vector in the direction of the most rapid change of T, and its magnitude
is equal to this rate of change.

if AB = 0
The vector A is zero
The vector B is zero
= 90

Gradient
1- Definition. (x,y,z) is a differentiable scalar field
x, y, z ctt
uuu
r
dr

d
d
d

ax
ay
az
dx
dy
dz

grad

2 Physical meaning: is
a vector that represents both the
magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of increase
of

Divergence
The operator is of vector form, a scalar product can be obtained as :

d
d
d
a x a y a z ( Ax a x Ay a y Az a z )
dy
dz
dx

Ax Ay Az

x
y
z
A is the net flux of A per unit volume at the point considered, counting
vectors into the volume as negative, and vectors out of the volume as positive.

A B Ax Bx Ay B y Az Bz

Output - input : the net rate of mass flow from unit volume

Divergence
Ain

Aout

A 0
The flux leaving the one end must exceed the flux entering at the other end.
The tubular element is divergent in the direction of flow.
Therefore, the operator is frequently called the divergence :
Divergence of a vector

A div A

Divergence
1 Definition
ur
v(x, y, z) is a differentiable vector field

uu
r
V(x, y, z)

uu
r
V(x dx, y, z)

ur
ur v
vy
v
div v = v x
z uvu
x
y
z

x+dx

2 Physical meaning
The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit
volume as the volume shrinks about P.

Divergence

(a) Positive divergence, (b) negative divergence, (c) zero divergence.

Divergence

To evaluate the divergence of

a vector field A at point
P(x0,y0,x0), we let the point
surrounded by a differential
volume

After some series expansions

we get;

Divergence

Cylindrical Coordinate System

Spherical Coordinate System

Divergence

Properties of the divergence of a vector field

It produces a scalar field

The divergence of a scalar V, div V, makes no
sense

Curl

1 Definition. The curl of a is an axial (or rotational) vector whose

magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area lends
to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the area
is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum.

Curl

ur

2 Physical meaning: curl v is related to the local

rotation of the vectorfield:

ur
curl v ; 0

ur uu
r r
ur
uu
r
If v r curl
,
v
=2

ur
v is the fluid velocity vectorfield

ur
curl v 0

Curl
What is its physical meaning?
Assume a two-dimensional fluid element

B
y

u
y
y
v
v x
x

u
x
u

y
v

v u
0 k

x y
0

Regarded as the angular velocity of OA, direction : k

u
Thus, the angular velocity of OA is k v ; similarily, the angular velocity of OB is k
y
x

Curl
The angular velocity of the fluid element is the average of the two angular velocities :

B
y

1 v u

k
2 x y

u
u y
y
v

u
x
u

v
u

y
v

v
x
x

v u
0 k

x y
0

u 2 k
This value is called the vorticity of the fluid element,
which is twice the angular velocity of the fluid element.
This is the reason why it is called the curl operator.

Curl

Cartesian Coordinates

Curl

Cylindrical Coordinates

Curl

Spherical Coordinates

Stokes Theorem
If there is a vector field A, then the line
integral of A taken round C is equal to
the surface integral of A taken over S :

A dl ( A) dS AdS
S

Two-dimensional system

Ay Ax
C ( Ax dx Ay dy) S x y dxdy

Considering a surface S having

element dS and curve C denotes
the curve :

Stokes Theorem

Stokes's theorem states that ihe circulation of

a vector field A around a (closed) pth L is
equal to the surface integral of the curl of A
SAbounded by L
over the open surface
provided that A and
are continuous on S

Laplacian
1 Scalar Laplacian. The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written
2
as V . is the divergence of the gradient of V.

LaplacianV V 2V
Divergence of a vector is scalar
The Laplacian of a scalar field is scalar

V Gradient of a scalar is vector

Laplacian

In cartesian coordinates

2V
ax a y az
y
z
x
2V
2V
2V
2
V 2 ax 2 a y 2
x
y
z

V
V
V
ax
ay
az
y
z
x

az

In Cylindrical coordinates

In Spherical Coordinates

Laplacian: physical meaning

(x)

As a second derivative, the one-dimensional

Laplacianoperator is related to minima and
maxima: when the second derivative is
positive (negative), the curvature is
concave (convexe).

convex

concave

In most of situations, the 2-dimensional

Laplacianoperator is also related to local
minima and maxima. If vE is positive:

vE : maximum in E ((E) > average value in the surrounding)

vE : minimum in E ((E) < average value in the surrounding)

Laplacian

A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in a

given region if its Laplacian vanishes in that
region.
2V 0

Laplacian

2A
Laplacian of a vector:
is defined as the
gradient of the divergence of A minus the curl
of the curl of A;

Only for the cartesian coordinate system;

3. Differential operators

Summary
Operator

grad

div

curl

Laplacian

is

a vector

a scalar

a vector

a scalar
(resp. a vector)

concerns

a scalar
field

a vector
field

a vector
field

a scalar field
(resp. a vector field)

ur
v

ur
v

u
r
( resp. v)

Definition

Gauss Divergence Theorem

The divergence theorem

states that the total outward
flux of a vector field A through
the closed surface S is the
same as the volume integral
of the divergence of A

The theorem applies to any

volume v bounded by the
closed surface S

Gauss Divergence Theorem

Ain

Aout
A div A

The tubular element is divergent in the direction of flow.

u div u

The net rate of mass flow from unit volume

We also have : The surface integral of the velocity vector u gives

the net volumetric flow across the surface
u dS u ndS
The mass flow rate of a closed surface (volume)

u dS ud
S

Stokes Theorem

A dr A dS AdS
S

Gauss Divergence Theorem

A dS Ad
S

Classification of Vector Fields

A vector field is characterized by its

divergence and curl
A 0,
A 0,

A 0
A 0

A 0,
A 0,

A 0
A 0

Classification of Vector Fields

Solenoidal Vector Field: A vector field A is said

A 0 if
to be solenoidal (or divergenceless)

Such a field has neither source nor sink of

flux, flux lines of A entering any closed
surface must also leave it.

Classification of Vector Fields

A vector field A is said to be irrotational (or

potential) if
A 0

In an irrotational field A, the circulation of A

around a closed path is identically zero.
This implies that the line integral of A is
independent of the chosen path
An irrotational field is also known as a
conservative field

Stokes formula: vector field global circulation

uuur
dS

Theorem. If S(C)is any oriented surface delimited by C:

S(C)
C

C
y

S(C)

ur uuur
curl V dS

Sketch of proof.

Vy

ur uur
V dr

Vx
x

ur uur

Vy
V y

V(P)

O(
3)

2 V dr V(P)

2 x
2 x

Vx
V x

V(P)

V(P)

O( 3)

2 y
2 y

ur uur Vy V 2
x O( 3 )
V

dr

and then extend to any surface delimited by C.

Divergence Formula: global conservation laws

ur
V(x, y, z)

ur
V(x dx, y, z)

Theorem. If V(C)is the volume delimited by S

S
x

x+dx

ur uuur
V dS

V(S)

ur
div V dV

Sketch of proof. Flow through the oriented

elementary planes x = ctt and x+dx = ctt:
-Vx(x,y,z).dydz + Vx(x+dx,y,z).dydz

and then extend this expression to the lateral surface of the cube.
Vx
Other expression: Vx (x+dx,y,z).dydz - Vx (x,y,z).dydz =
dxdydz
x
Vx Vy
Vz
+

dxdydz
extended to the vol. of the elementary cube:

y
z
x