Chapter 2

Fuels

Introduction
Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact
and reacting with oxygen or air, produces heat.
Thus, the substances classified as fuel must necessarily contain
one or several of the combustible elements : carbon, hydrogen,
sulphur, etc.
In the process of combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is
converted into heat energy.
To utilize the energy of fuel in most usable form, it is required to
transform the fuel from its one state to another, i.e. from solid to
liquid or gaseous state, liquid to gaseous state, or from its
chemical energy to some other form of energy via single or many
stages.
In this way, the energy of fuels can be utilized more effectively
1
and efficiently for various purposes.

Combustion of Fuel
The term combustion refers to the exothermal oxidation of a fuel,
by air or oxygen occurring at a sufficiently rapid rate to produce a
high temperature, usually with the appearance of a flame.
As most of the fuels contain carbon or carbon and hydrogen, the
combustion involves the oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide and
hydrogen to water.
Sulphur, if present, is oxidized to sulphur dioxide while the
mineral matter forms the ash.
Complex fuels like coal undergo thermal decomposition during
combustion to give simpler products which are then oxidized to
carbon dioxide, water etc.
E.g. Coke on combustion gives carbon dioxide.
Coal Coke + Coal gas
C (coke) +
O2 CO2
2

Classification of Fuels
Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways, i.e.
(a) according to the physical state in which they exist in nature
solid, liquid and gaseous, and
(b) according to the mode of their procurement natural and
manufactured.
None of these classifications, however, gives an idea of the
qualitative or intensive value of the fuels, i.e. their power of
developing the thermal intensity or calorimetric temperature under
the normal condition of use, i.e. combustion of fuels in mixture
with atmospheric air in stoichiometric proportion.

Table 2.1 : Natural and Manufactured Fuels

Fundamentals and definitions

Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and

reacting with oxygen or air, produces heat.
Fuel can also be defined as a material which gives out energy on
combustion.
Choice of fuel is a critical decision in the furnace design process,
especially since fuel is one of the highest costs of subsequent furnace
operation.
Fuel choice also has a major impact on furnace performance and the
capital cost of the overall installation.
This chapter will consider the various fuels available and how their
characteristics influence their suitability as furnace fuels.
It should be noted that a fuel that approaches ideal for one process
may be less suitable or even totally unacceptable for a different system.
Factors affecting the cost of fuel to the user include: abundance or
scarcity (both worldwide and locally), ease of extraction or manufacture,
ease of use (fuels that are easier to use attract a premium from
suppliers), political policy (i.e. taxation), ease of transportation, etc. 5

Properties of a fuel that influence its use include:

1. Availability and cost
2. Calorific value
3. Flammability limits
4. Density of the fuel, especially gaseous and liquid fuels
5. Emissivity of flame produced
6. Chemical composition and the products of the combustion
process (including toxicity of the fuel and its products of
combustion)
7. Ash content and composition (principally for solid fuels)
8. Effect of products of combustion on the product

Requirements of a good fuel

A good fuel should have the following:
1. High Calorific Value
A good fuel should have high calorific value i.e. it should
produce large amount of heat on burning.
2. Moderate Ignition Temperature
Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature to which fuel
must be preheated so that it starts burning smoothly.
If ignition temp. is low, the fuel catches fire easily.
Low ignition temperature is dangerous for storage and
transportation of fuel.
High temperature causes difficulty in kindling. So ,a good fuel
should have moderate ignition temperature.
3. Low Moisture Content
A good fuel should have low moisture content as moisture
content reduces the calorific value.
7

4. Low Non-combustible Matter Content

A good fuel should have low contents of non-combustible material
as non-combustible matter is left in form of ash which decreases the
calorific value of the fuel.
5. Moderate Rate of Combustion
The temperature of combustion of fuel depends upon the rate of
combustion .
If the rate of combustion is low ,then required high temperature
may not be reached soon.
On the other hand ,too high combustion rate causes high
temperature very quickly. So ,a good fuel should have moderate
rate of combustion.
6. Minimum Smoke and Non-poisonous Gases
On burning, Fuel should not give out objectionable and
poisonous gases.
In other words, gaseous products should not pollute the
atmosphere. Gases like CO,SO2,H2S etc. are some of harmful
8
gases.

7. Cheap

A good fuel should be cheap and readily available.

8. Easy Transportation
A good fuel should be easy to handle and transport at low cost.
9. Controllable Combustion
Combustion of fuel should be easy to start or stop when
required.
10. Non Spontaneous Combustion
Combustion of fuel should be non-spontaneous otherwise it can
cause fire hazards.
11. Low Storage Cost
A good fuel should be easily stored at low cost.
9

SOLID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories, i.e. natural fuels, such as
wood, coal, etc. and manufactured fuels, such as charcoal, coke, briquettes,
etc. (Table 2.1).
The various advantages and disadvantages of solid fuels are given below :
Advantages
(a) They are easy to transport.
(b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
(c) Their cost of production is low.
(d) They posses moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages
(a) Their ash content is high.
(b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
(c) They burn with clinker formation.
(d) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
(e) Their cost of handling is high.

10

Coals and their Characteristics

The most important solid fuel is coal.
Fallen trees and the other plant remains are attacked by the
oxygen of the air.
The chief constituent of trees, cellulose, is thus converted into
water and various
. gases, so that it soon rots away and no traces
of the remains would be present.
But, if the trees and other vegetable matter are submerged
under water(due to natural calamities), the plant remains are
decomposed, only by the action of bacteria.
The decomposition products accumulate until the bacteria itself
can exist no longer.
Due to certain geological influences causing the land level,
relative to the sea, rise or fall, the accumulations of decayed plant
material get covered layer by layer, by sediment and rocks.
Under the influence of heat and pressure, other changes which
are more profound are brought about.
11

Pressures, not only due to the weight of the overlying rocks but
also from the lateral earth movements, cause the folding and
compression of the seams.
Chemical action also results, which includes the elimination of
water and the oxides of carbon.
All these actions are varied, and also their influences, resulting in
the ultimate coal substance consisting of varying degrees of
volatile matter.
Thus a large varieties of coals are formed.
The variations in the coals have resulted due to the following
reasons:
i. variations in the original vegetable matter,
ii. extent of bacterial decay,
iii. extent of removal of the volatile matter by the pressure and
heat.
12

Contd
Coal is classified into three major types namely anthracite,
bituminous, and lignite.
However, there is no clear demarcation between them.
Coal is further classified as semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous,
and sub-bituminous.
.
Anthracite is the oldest coal from a geological perspective.
It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon with little volatile
content.
Lignite is the youngest coal from a geological perspective.
It is a soft coal composed mainly of volatile matter and moisture
content with low fixed carbon.
Fixed carbon refers to carbon in its free state, not combined with
other elements.
Volatile matter refers to those combustible constituents of coal
that vaporize when coal is heated.
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Analysis of Coal
There are two methods: ultimate analysis and proximate
analysis.
The ultimate analysis determines all coal component elements,
solid or gaseous and the proximate analysis determines only the
fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash percentages.
The ultimate analysis is determined in a properly equipped
laboratory by a skilled chemist, while proximate analysis can be
determined with a simple apparatus.
Measurement of Moisture
Determination of moisture is carried out by placing a sample of
powdered raw coal of size 200-micron size in an uncovered
crucible and it is placed in the oven kept at 108+2 oC along with
the lid.
Then the sample is cooled to room temperature and weighed
again.
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The loss in weight represents moisture.

Measurement of Volatile Matter

Fresh sample of crushed coal is weighed, placed in a covered
crucible, and heated in a furnace at 900 + 15 oC.
For the methodologies including that for carbon and ash, refer to
IS 1350 part I:1984, part III, IV.
The sample is cooled and weighed.
Loss of weight represents moisture and volatile matter.
The remainder is coke (fixed carbon and ash).
Measurement of Carbon and Ash
The cover from the crucible used in the last test is removed and
the crucible is heated over the Bunsen burner until all the carbon
is burned.
The residue is weighed, which is the incombustible ash.
The difference in weight from the previous weighing is the fixed
carbon.
In actual practice Fixed Carbon or FC derived by subtracting
from 100 the value of moisture, volatile matter and ash.
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Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis indicates the percentage by weight of the
Fixed Carbon, Volatiles, Ash, and Moisture Content in coal.
The amounts of fixed carbon and volatile combustible matter
directly contribute to the heating value of coal.
Fixed carbon acts as a main heat generator during burning.
High volatile matter content indicates easy ignition of fuel.
The ash content is important in the design of the furnace grate,
combustion volume, pollution control equipment and ash handling
systems of a furnace.
A typical proximate analysis of various coal is given in the Table
below.
Table 2.2 : Typical proximate analysis of various coals(%).

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Ultimate Analysis
The ultimate analysis indicates the various elemental chemical
constituents such as Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, etc.
It is useful in determining the quantity of air required for
combustion and the volume and composition of the combustion
gases.
This information is required for the calculation of flame
temperature and the flue duct design etc. Typical ultimate
analyses of various coals are given in the Table below.
Table 2.3 : Typical Ultimate Analyses of Coals.

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Manufactured Solid Fuels and their Characteristics

The manufactured solid fuels include, charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc.
They are obtained from the natural fuels, like wood, coal, etc.
Charcoal and its Characteristics
Charcoal is a product derived from destructive distillation of wood, being left in
the shape of solid residue.
Charcoal burns rapidly with a clear flame, producing no smoke and developing
heat of about 6,050 cal/kg.
Coke and its Characteristics
It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in the shape of solid
residue.
Coke can be classified into two categories : soft coke and hard coke.
Soft coke is obtained as the solid residue from the destructive distillation of
coal in the temperature range of 600-650oC.
It contains 5 to 10% volatile matter.
It burns without smoke.
It is extensively used as domestic fuel.
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Hard coke is obtained as solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal
in the temperature range of 1200-1400oC.
It burns with smoke and is a useful fuel for metallurgical process.
Briquettes and their Characteristics
The term briquettes is used in respect of the dust, culm, slack and other small
size waste remains of lignite, peat, coke, etc. compressed into different shapes
of regular form, with or without binder.
Dust and rubble result in considerable percentage during mining,
transportation, etc. and the briquetting industry is, therefore, an important step
towards the saving of fuel economy.
Good briquettes should be quite hard and as little friable as possible.
They must withstand the hazards of weather, and must be suitable for storing
and general handling in use.
These properties are impart to briquettes by a correctly selected binder, or
suitable processing such as pre-heating, pressing, etc.
Amongst the binders, asphalt, pitch are most commonly used, giving fine
results.
The general conclusion is that 5-8% binder should be used to produce high
quality briquettes.
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LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The liquid fuels can be classified as follows :
(a) Natural or crude oil, and
(b) Artificial or manufactured oils.
The advantages and disadvantages of liquid fuels can be
summarized as follows :
Advantages
(a) They posses higher calorific value per unit mass than solid
fuels.
(b) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
(c) Their firing is easier and also fire can be extinguished easily by
stopping liquid fuel supply.
(d) They are easy to transport through pipes.
(e) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
(f) They are clean in use and economic to handle.
(g) Loss of heat in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
(h) They require less excess air for complete combustion.
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(i) They require less furnace space for combustion.

Disadvantages
(a) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
(b) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
(c) There is a greater risk of fire hazards, particularly, in case of highly
inflammable and volatile liquid fuels.
(d) They give bad odour.
(e) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and
spraying apparatus are required.

Petroleum and its Characteristics

Petroleum is a basic natural fuel.
It is a dark greenish brown, viscous mineral oil, found deep in
earths crust.
It is mainly composed of various hydrocarbons (like straight chain
paraffins, cycloparaffins or napthenes, olefins, and aromatics)
together with small amount of organic compounds containing
oxygen nitrogen and sulphur.
The average composition of crude petroleum is : C = 79.5 to
87.1%; H = 11.5 to 14.8%; S = 0.1 to 3.5%, N and O = 0.1 to
21
0.5%.

Liquid fuels are analyzed for the following important properties:

(a) Specific gravity,
(b) Calorific value,
(c) Flashpoint,
(d) Pour point,
(e) Viscosity,
(f) Sulphur contents,
(g) Moisture content, and
(h) Specific heat.
Classification of Petroleum
The chemical nature of crude petroleum varies with the part of the
world in which it is found.
They appear, however, to be three principal types.
Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum
This type of petroleum is mainly composed of the saturated
hydrocarbons from CH4 to C35 H72 and a little of naphthene and
aromatics. The hydrocarbons from C18 H38 to C35 H72 are sometimes
22
called waxes.

Asphaltic Base Type Crude Petroleum

It contains mainly cycloparaffins or naphthene with smaller
amount of paraffins and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum
It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons and are
generally rich in semi-solid waxes.
Manufactured Liquid Fuels
Manufactured liquid fuels include Gasoline, Diesel oil, Kerosene,
Heavy oil, Naphtha, Lubricating oils, etc.
These are obtained mostly by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum or liquefaction of coal.
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GASEOUS FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Gases may be natural or manufactured, the latter generally obtained from oil, coal
or biomass (wood).
Both natural and manufactured fuels vary widely in chemical composition and
physical characteristics.
The advantages and disadvantages of gaseous fuels are given below :
Advantages
Gaseous fuels due to ease and flexibility of their applications, possess the
following advantages over solid or liquid fuels :
(a) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need,
thereby eliminating manual labor in transportation.
(b) They can be lighted at ease.
(c) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures.
(d) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting
economy in heat.
(e) Their combustion can readily be controlled.
(f) They are clean in use.
(g) They do not require any special burner.
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(h) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.

Disadvantages
(a) Very large storage tanks are needed.
(b) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.
Natural Gas and its Characteristics
Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits and is obtained
from wells dug in the oil-bearing regions.
The approximate composition of natural gas is :
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%
The calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3.
It is an excellent domestic fuel and is conveyed in pipelines over very large
distances.
It is now used in the manufacturing of chemicals by synthetic process.
It is a colorless gas and is non-poisonous. Its specific gravity is usually
between 0.57 to 0.7.
Manufactured Gases
Manufactured gases are obtained form solid and liquid fuels.
Some of the important manufactured gaseous fuels are coal gas, blast furnace
gas, water gas, producer gas and oil gas.
25

Calorific value of fuels and its determination

experimentally
The heating value or calorific value of a combustible material is
an important property, which may be used to evaluate its
effectiveness for using as a fuel and also for the design of
chemical equipments where it is to be used.
The calorific value or heating value of a solid fuel or liquid fuel
may be defined as the number of heat units (kJ) liberated by the
complete combustion (burning) of one kilogram of fuel.
For solid or liquid fuels, the calorific value is generally expressed
as kJ per kilogram.
For gaseous fuels, the calorific value is generally expressed in kJ
per cubic meter of gas measured at temperature of 15oC and a
pressure of 760 mm of mercury, i.e., at S.T.P.
Fuels which contain hydrogen have two heating values, the
higher and the lower calorific values.
26

The higher or gross or total calorific value (H.C.V.) of a fuel is the

total heat liberated by one kilogram or one cubic meter of fuel
when completely burned, including the heat of steam formed by
the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel which is recovered by
condensing the steam from the products of combustion.
The lower or net calorific value (L.C.V.) of a fuel is the heat
liberated per kilogram or per cubic meter of fuel after the enthalpy
necessary to vaporize the steam formed by combustion of
hydrogen in the fuel is deducted.
The enthalpy referred to is the enthalpy of evaporation of dry
saturated steam at the standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm
Hg.
The calorific value of a fuel may be found :
Theoretically by calculations, when the composition of fuel on
mass basis is known, and
Experimentally by a fuel calorimeter.
27

Theoretical Value : The theoretical calorific value (C.V.) of a fuel

may be calculated by using a formula known as Dulongs formula.
If the ultimate analysis of the fuel is available and if the calorific
value of the elementary combustibles (carbon, hydrogen and
sulphur) are known, then the calorific value of the fuel is
approximately the sum of the heat liberated by these combustibles
(carbon, hydrogen and sulphur).
According to Dulongs formula,

28

Experimental Value : The calorific value of a fuel is determined

very accurately by the use of a fuel calorimeter in which a known
quantity of fuel is burnt and heat liberated from its combustion is
absorbed by a definite mass of water whose temperature rise is
then measured.
Bomb Calorimeter (fig. 2-1) enables an accurate determination
of the calorific value of a solid fuel, and also of a liquid fuel when
burnt at constant volume in an atmosphere of oxygen.
The name of the apparatus arises from the shape of the vessel
in which the fuel is burnt.
The bomb is made of stainless steel and consists of a base,
which supports the platinum crucible and is screwed ' to the body
of the bomb.
The top of the bomb carries an oxygen supply connection
through which the bomb is charged with the oxygen, and a
product release valve.
29

Figure 2.1: Bomb calorimeter.

30

The selected sample of coal to be tested is reduced to powder and then

compressed into briquette with the aid of a briquette mould apparatus.
The mass of powdered sample of coal taken for the test is usually one
gram and the calorimeter is filled with 2,000 c.c. of water.
The sample of coal (briquette) is then placed in the platinum crucible (fig.
2-1).
The iron fuse wire, which surrounds the coal sample, is connected to the
lower end of the two electrodes.
The electrodes extend through the base of the bomb and connect the
fuse wire to an electric circuit.
The coal can be ignited by closing the electric circuit.
The bomb is placed inside a copper vessel known as the calorimeter
which contains a definite weighed amount of water (2,000 c.c.).
A stirring device for agitating (or stirring) the water within the
calorimeter is attached to the apparatus and it is worked by an electric
motor.
31

The calorimeter filled with water and containing the bomb, is

surrounded by an outer vessel (not shown in fig. 2-1) which forms
an air space around the calorimeter and thereby minimizes the
radiation losses to the surroundings.
The temperature of the water in the calorimeter is measured by
an accurate thermometer graduated to read up to one hundredth
degree centigrade.
An oxygen cylinder (not shown in fig. 2-1) supplies oxygen to the
bomb to burn the coal.
The oxygen cylinder is coupled to the bomb and the oxygen is
admitted to the bomb through the oxygen supply valve until the
pressure gauge on the cylinder indicates a pressure of about 25
atmospheres.
Temperature readings of the water in the calorimeter are taken at
one minute interval for a period of 10 to 15 minutes.
When either the temperature is constant or the change of
temperature is regular, the coal sample is ignited by closing the
32
electric circuit.

The stirrer is kept in motion all the time and temperature readings
are taken at 1/2 minute interval for about 5 minutes, until the
maximum temperature is reached.
The temperature readings are taken at one minute interval for 10
minutes after maximum temperature is reached.
These temperature readings are required for calculating the heat
exchange with jacket.
The heat generated by combustion of the sample of the coal is
partly absorbed by the weighed quantity of water in the
calorimeter and partly by the metal of the bomb and the
calorimeter.
The water equivalent of the bomb and the calorimeter is usually
furnished by manufacturers or it can be determined
33
experimentally.

The heating value, thus, determined is the higher calorific value at

constant volume.
34

For the very accurate determination of calorific value, corrections are

made for the following :
Heat may be gained from the atmosphere or heat may be lost to the
atmosphere by the apparatus during the experiment.
Combustion taking place in oxygen, results in the formation of nitric
acid and sulphuric acid.
The fuse wire liberates some heat energy.
The products of combustion are cooled to the original temperature.
The correction for radiation (or cooling correction) has to be made in
the observed temperature rise during the period of burning which will
eliminate the error due to first reason.
The cooling correction is expressed in degree centigrade and
should be added to the observed temperature rise of water to get the
corrected or true temperature rise.
The heat resulting from the formation of nitric acid and sulphuric
acid and that due to heating of the fuse wire, when subtracted from
the heat absorbed by apparatus and the water, will eliminate the
error due to second and third reasons as stated above.
The error due to the fourth reason is only a small fraction of about
one per cent.
35

Calorific value of a liquid fuel (oil) is measured in the same manner as

with solid fuels by a bomb calorimeter.
The sample of liquid fuel is filled in a gelatin capsule and the capsule is
placed in the platinum crucible.

36

Calorific value of gaseous fuel is generally expressed in kJ per cubic

meter of the gas at S.T.P. or N.T.P. and may be obtained :
. Theoretically by calculations, based on the chemical analysis of gas, or
. Experimentally by means of a gas calorimeter.
Theoretically the calorific value in kJ/m3 of a gaseous fuel can be
calculated by making chemical analysis and then summing up the heat
evolved by the combustible constituents when burnt separately.
The heating value of some typical gases are given in table below.
Table 2.4 Calorific (heating) value of gases

The calorific value of gaseous fuel can also be determined

experimentally (very accurately) by a gas calorimeter, known as Junkers
37
gas calorimeter.

Figure 2.2: Junker's gas calorimeter.

38

Junkers Gas Calorimeter consists of a vertical cylindrical

chamber containing vertical tubes.
The gas is burned in a Bunsen burner placed underneath the
water chamber.
The products of combustion pass upward through the
combustion chamber and then downward through the tubes.
The tubes are surrounded by continuously flowing water.
The water enters at the bottom and leaves at the top.
The water is supplied under a constant head to ensure uniform
rate of circulation.
The gas flow to the calorimeter is measured by a gas meter.
The pressure of the gas is controlled by a gas pressure regulator.
This is necessary to damp out pulsations in the gas supply which
would affect the results adversely.
The pressure of the gas is measured by a water manometer.
39

The gas temperature is measured by a thermometer at the gas

meter and the temperature of the products of combustion is
measured by another thermometer placed in the products of
combustion outlet pipe.
The temperature of the water entering and leaving the
calorimeter are also measured by two thermometers provided in
the inlet and outlet water pipes.
The water which flows through the calorimeter is collected and
weighed.
The amount of condensate formed due to the combustion of
hydrogen in the fuel gas is determined by collecting it in a small
graduated glass vessel (not shown).
Certain specific standards are observed regarding the rate of
flow of the gas and water.
The rate of gas flow is specified to be about 6 liters per minute
for a test of 4 minutes duration, during which time about 2,000 c.c.
of water should be circulated and the temperature rise should be
40
about 20o C.

Readings of the inlet and outlet water temperatures should be

taken after every 30 seconds during the test.
Other readings to be taken during the test are : the amount of
gas burned and its pressure and temperature at the meter, the
amount of water passing through the calorimeter, the amount of
condensate collected, and the barometric pressure.
The calorific value of the gas in kJ per cubic meter is determined
by multiplying the mass of water passed in kg by the rise of
temperature of water in oC, and the specific heat of water in kJ/kg
K and dividing the product by the volume of gas used in cubic
meters reduced to S.T.P. (15 oC and 760 mm Hg) or to N.T.P. (O
o
C and 760 mm Hg).

41

42

43

***THE END***

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