Physics 2

Distance
Distance-Time Graphs
Gradient = Speed
Flat sections are stationary
Straight = steady speed
Curves= acceleration or
deceleration

Velocity and Acceleration

Acceleration is how quickly velocity is changing
Acceleration=Change in Velocity/Time Taken
Velocity-Time Graphs
Gradient = Acceleration
Flat sections = steady speed
Area under the graph
represents distance
Curve is change in
acceleration

Weight
MASS is the stuff inside, whereas
WEIGHT is the force due to gravity
Weight = Mass x Gravitational
Field Strength
Earths GFS is 10N/Kg

Resultant Forces
It is the overall FORCE
The overall effect of forces which will
decide the motion of an object
If two forces are acting in the same
direction, the resultant force is the
sum of those two
If two forces are acting along the
same line, then the resultant force is
found by subtracting them

Resultant
Force
=1600N
Pushing
Force
=600N

Driving
force
=1000N

Resultant
Force
=400N

Frictio
n
=600
N

Driving
force
=1000N

Acceleration
If the resultant force in 0 the object is
stationary
It there is no resultant force on a moving
object, then it will carry on moving with
constant velocity
If there is an resultant force, then the
object will accelerate in the direction
of the force
That is until the force equal out
again

 Force = Mass x Acceleration

Or Acceleration =
Force / Mass
When two object interact, the forces
they put (exert) upon each other are
equal and opposite
This is called a reaction force, so if
you push against something it will
push back against you with equal

Friction
It acts against movement
If you travel at a steady speed, the
driving force needs to equal the
frictional force
Streamlining reduces drag or air
resistance
Drag increases as speed increases,
as you accelerate you hit more air
particles with more force. This
created more drag

Terminal Velocity
When an object first falls, gravity
(weight) has more force than
frictional forces
This causes the object to accelerate
downwards
As the speed increases, so does the
drag
This reduces the acceleration
Weight can not get any bigger,
so you reach terminal

Stopping Distance
Thinking Distance
Faster you are going = Further you will go
Your Reactions- Tiredness, drugs, alcohol, bad
visibility and distractions
Braking Distance
Faster you are going = Further you will go
The Car- the condition of Tyres and condition
of Brakes
The Road- road surface and weather
condition

30
mph

50 mph

9
m

So this shows that

thinking distance is
directionally
proportional but
braking distance is
squarely proportional

14
m

15
m

38m

21m
70 mph

Thinking
Distance
Distance

75m
Braking

Stopping Dis. = Thinking Dis. +

Work Done
To move an object energy has to be
transferred
The energy can be used usefully i.e.
To move something or wastefully i.e.
Friction
Work Done= Force x Distance
Moved

Gravitational Potential
Energy
When an object is lifted vertically
work is done against the force of
gravity. This is transferred into
gravitational potential energy (GPE)
GPE= Mass x Height x GFS
(gravitational field strength)

The Earth has a GFS of 10N/Kg

Kinetic Energy
Any thing that moves has kinetic energy
Kinetic Energy = Mass x Speed
Moving car has lots of KE so to slow it
down energy is lost i.e. Heat energy
Work done = KE
Fxd
= mv
Falling objects have the potential energy
lost and they gain kinetic energy

Elasticity
Apply a force = Stretch the Object
Work done is stored as ELASTIC
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Then its goes back to its original
shape releasing the energy as
KINETIC ENERGY

 Extension of Spring is
DIRECTIONALLY PROPORTIONAL to
the force applied
Force = K (spring constant) x
energy
There is a limit to a springs elasticity,
it is normal until it reaches its
maximum force
Past this point the spring will not
return to its original shape

Power
It is the rate of doing work
Power = Work Done / Time Taken
Measured in Watts, which means 1
Watt is 1 joule of energy transferred
every second

Momentum

Its a property of a moving object

Momentum = Mass x Velocity
Also P before = P after
Momentum is a vector, so has
direction
When a force acts upon an object it
changes its momentum
The bigger the force the faster the
change of momentum

Car Safety
Brakes transform the kinetic energy
of the car into thermal energy on the
road
Regenerative brakes dont transform
into heat the transform into electrical
energy
Big change in Momentum in a short
time = MASSIVE

END OF FIRST HALF

Static Electricity
It is created when two object rub
against each other and either lose or
gain electrons
Like charges repel, so if hair had
been charged then the hair would
separate because their like charges
repel each other
However these charges can be
easily lost through a
conductor

Current and Voltage

Current is the rate of flow of charge
Current= Charge / Time
The Potential Difference is the work
done per coulomb of charge
Voltage = Work Done / Charge

Circuits

Resistance

Current through a resistor (at constant temp.) is directionally proportional to Voltage

The higher the resistance the higher the potential difference
However in a normal filament lamp the temperature of the filament increases this
causes the curve

This is a Diode. The current will only flow in one direction. The diode has a very high
resistance in the opposite direction

Series
All or nothing, if one component
breaks ao does the circuit
Potential difference is shared out, so
in 23 fairy-lights on the mains
electricity they all have a voltage of
10V
Current is the same everywhere
And the Resistance builds/adds up, 5
bulbs with 10 so the circuit has 50

Parallel
Things can be switched off
separately
Voltage is the same across all
components
However current is shared between
each branch. The current going in is
the same as going out, but the
components have different currents
going across them

Mains Electricity

Supplied in AC
Has 230V
And has frequency of 50Hz
It can be shown on an
oscilloscope

Electricity in the Home

Hazards: Long Cables; Frayed cables;
damaged plugs; too many plugs in 1
socket; water near sockets
The wires: Live wire carries the
alternating current; Neutral has 0V
and Earth is attached to metal casing

BLUE
E
F
T

BROWN
I
G
H
T

Fuses and Earthing

Fault in the LIVE WIRE causes it to
touch the metal case
This causes a larger current to flow
through the circuit
This surge cause the FUSE to MELT
This cuts of the live supply and
breaks the circuit, THUS saving the
appliance and the user

Fault in the
Live Wire

The Fuse
melts/blows

Live wire
touches the
metal casing

Big Surge of
Electricity to
earth

The appliance is SAFE

Energy and Power

All resistors produce heat when a
current flows through them. The
more current the more heat
To be energy efficient they have to
transfer more of their total electrical
energy to a useful source
Energy Transferred= Power
Rating x Time

Atomic Structure- Rutherford

In 1909 Rutherford fired alpha particles at gold
foil to discover more about particles
He found most went straight through, this
shows particles are mostly empty space
Some came straight back, the shows that most
of the mass is concentration in a central nucleus
Some were deflected, this shows the
nucleus is positive and there must be
negative electrons not in the nucleus

Radiation
Isotopes are atoms of the same element but are
slightly different, they have the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons
Radioactivity is entirely random, it comes from
an unstable and decaying nuclei. This emits
alpha, beta or gamma radiation
Background radiation comes from: naturally
unstable isotopes like rocks and food;
space like cosmic rays; Man-made
places like weapons and medicine and
power-stations

Types of Radiation
Alpha radiation is a helium nucleus, so two
protons and two neutrons. Cant penetrate
much but because of its size its strongly
ionising (bash into atoms and knock
electrons off of them)
Beta radiation is an electron which is emitted
when a neutron turns into a proton. Can go
through some things and is mildly ionising
Gamma radiation is an ray. This penetrates
everything but is weakly ionising.

Radiation Safety
Radiation damage depend on the type of
radiation and how long you were exposed
Alpha particles are deflected slightly by magnetic
field but beta particles are extremely deflected
by the magnetic field
Granite release radon gas which can be trapped
in peoples houses
Nuclear industry workers wear protective clothing
and face masks and have radiation badges
Radiographers work behind lead screens and
wear lead aprons

Half-Life
Half life is the AVERAGE TIME it takes
for the NUMBER OF NUCLEI in a
radioactive isotope to HALVE
Radioactivity never stops, there will
always be some activity, so its hard
to measure
Short half life means lots of nuclei
decay quickly, activity falls quickly

-1 Half
Life-

-1 Half Life-1 Half Life-

Uses of Radiation
Smoke detectors- alpha particles make and
circuit and smoke breaks the circuit, making the
alarm go off
Sterilisation- Gamma rays are used to kill
bacteria on food or medical equipment, without
harming them
Radiotherapy- gamma is fired at a cancer to kill
all of those cells, but damage is done
Tracers- beta or gamma sources are
put into someone and an external
detector says where most of the
radiation is

Damage of Radioactivity
Large amounts of radiation kill cells and leave
you with radiation sickness, but nothing else
Small amounts cause minor damage to cells
without killing them. They then mutant and
divide uncontrollably, this is a cancer
Alpha is very harmful inside the body because
it damages a very localised area
Beta and gamma are dangerous outside the
body because they can penetrate the skin

Nuclear Fission
This is what happens in nuclear
power stations and nuclear bombs
An Neutron had to be absorbed by an
unstable nuclei
This creates two new smaller nuclei
and releases more neutron, this
makes a chain reaction
This gives out a lot of energy

Nuclear Fusion
This is where two small nuclei join to
create a larger nucleus and energy
Fusion doesnt leave a lot of
radioactive waste and there is a
bounty of fuel (hydrogen)
It can only happen at really high
temperatures
You need at strong magnetic force to
2
1
3
hold
the
pressure
and
heat
He
+
ENERGY
H + H
1

Life Cycle of Stars

Red Gianthydrogen
has run out
and it was a
small star
OR

Nebula- The
nursery for
Stars. Clouds of
Dust and gas
start to form.
Gravity makes
it spiral and
form a
Protostar

ProtostarGravity is
turned into
heat. The temp
is then high
enough for
nucleur fusion
to start. This

Main Sequence
star- long stable
period where
outward
pressure is
equal to the
force of gravity
(the sun) but
this cant last

Red
SuperGiantHydrogen
has run out

Red Giant
White Dwarf- This is
whats left after the
red giant. It is a hot
solid, dense core.
When it cools down it
becomes a Black
Dwarf

Red Giant- small star

make this. It is
unstable so ejects its
outer layer of dust and
gas.

Planetary Nebula- This

is the outer layer of
duct and gas.

Red SuperGiant

OR

Red SuperGiantThis is made from

large stars. They
glow more
brightly because
they do more
fusion, so they
expand

Supernova- This is
the explosion of
the Red
SuperGiant. It
forms elements
heavier than iron
and spreads them
out into the

Neutron
Star- What is
left of the
supernova is
a dense
core. This is
an neutron
star

Black HoleIf the star is

big enough
the remains
of the
supernova
will form a
black hole