Research and Statistics Class Notes

Psychology:
The Scientific
Methodology
psychology
fourth edition
Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White
2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
1. What do you observe in the picture?

2. What does the picture make you reflect?
3. What question does the picture make you have?

Research
LO 1.11 Placebo and Experimenter Effects
AP: Predict Validity Based on Research Design
Why we need psychological research

Hindsight bias- Monday morning quarterback
(I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) the tendency to believe,
after learning an outcome, the one would have foreseen it
2015 Super Bowl

Research
Overconfidence- we think we know more than we do
Unscramble the following anagrams:
WREAT
ETRYN
GRABE

Research
Overconfidence- we think we know more than we do
Unscramble the following anagrams:
WREAT WATER
ETRYN ENTRY
GRABE BARGE

Critical Thinking
LO 1.19 Principles of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking
making reasoned judgments about claims

Critical Thinking
LO 1.19 Principles of Critical Thinking
Four basic criteria for critical thinking in

research:
1. There are very few truths that do not need
to be subjected to testing.
2. All evidence is not equal in quality.
3. Just because someone is considered to be
an authority or to have a lot of expertise
does not make everything that person claims
automatically true.
4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.
The Scientific Method

Report, revise,
replicate
Draw conclusions
Test

Hypothesize
Perceive
2
1
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009
Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology and the Scientific Method

LO 1.6 Psychology Is a Science; Steps in the Scientific Method
Scientific method
system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement
are reduced

Psychology and the Scientific Method

LO 1.6 Psychology Is a Science; Steps in the Scientific Method
Steps in the scientific method:

1. Perceive the question
2. Form a hypothesis: tentative explanation of a
phenomenon based on observations.
3. Test the hypothesis
4. Draw conclusions
5. Report your results so that others can try to
replicate, or repeat, the study or experiment to
see whether the same results will be obtained
in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results
Descriptive Methods
Naturalistic observation: observing and recording
behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to
manipulate and control the situation
major advantage: realistic picture of behavior, cost effective
Ex. Jane Goodall, observing students waiting in line in a
lunchroom.
Act as an unobtrusive observer, describe events

Descriptive Methods
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and Laboratory Settings
AP: Different Types of Research
Naturalistic observation: disadvantages

observer effect: tendency of people or animals to behave
differently when they know they are being observed
participant observation: a naturalistic observation in which the observer
becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer
effect)

Descriptive Methods
Naturalistic observation: disadvantages

observer bias: tendency of observers to see what they expect
to see
blind observers: people who do not know what the research question is
(to reduce observer bias)
Describes, but doesnt explain behavior

Descriptive Methods
Laboratory observation:
Advantages:
control over environment
allows use of specialized equipment
Disadvantage: artificial situation may result in artificial behavior
Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable

hypotheses

1.7 How are naturalistic and laboratory settings used to describe behavior, and what
are some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with these settings?
Descriptive Methods
Naturalistic Observation
Involves watching
animals or people in
their natural
environments
Lack of control

Laboratory Observation
Involves watching
animals or people in an
artificial but controlled
situation, such as a
laboratory
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009

Descriptive Methods
Testing- obtaining information by giving a battery of tests:
Achievement (EOCs, AP)
Aptitude (ACT, SAT, ASVB)
Interest Inventory
Intelligence
Personality

Descriptive Methods
LO 1.8 Case Studies and Surveys
Case study- obtaining biographical

information about an individual or an
individual group (family) over a long period
of time
Longitudinal: follows same subject, over a
long period of time
Typically self-reported, findings only apply to
small group/individual (i.e. Phineas Gage)
Often used in developmental psychology
Descriptive Methods
Survey/Questionnaire: a method of obtaining information

from a large number of people in a cost effective, efficient
way
Ex: Likert Scales

Descriptive Methods
Survey advantages
data from large numbers of people
study covert behaviors
Survey disadvantages
researchers have to ensure representative sample or the
results are not meaningful
people are not always accurate
Wording effects: affirmative action vs preferential treatment
Descriptive Methods
Case Studies
Detailed investigations
of one subject
Information gained
cannot be applied to
other cases

Surveys
Ask standardized
questions of large
groups of people that
represent a sample of
the population of
interest
Respondents may not
always tell the truth or
remember information
correctly
Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009

Provide an example
How would you draw a random sample of participants if
you were surveying
Children about a new toy?
Athletes about a sports drink?

Descriptive Methods
Surveys
researchers ask a series of questions about the topic under
study
Given to representative sample

representative sample: randomly selected sample of subjects
from a larger population of subjects
population: the entire group of people or animals in which the
researcher is interested

Finding Relationships
LO 1.9 Correlational Technique
AP: Research Design/ Different Types of Research

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Correlation
measure of the relationship between two
variables
variable: anything that can change or vary
Correlation causation (cause and effect)


Correlation
measures of two variables go into a
mathematical formula and produce a
correlation coefficient (r), which represents
two things:
direction of the relationship
strength of the relationship
Correlation is a prediction: from knowledge of

one variable it predicts the probability of a
second variable

Correlation coefficient- a number between

-1.00 to +1.00 that shows the:
1. STRENGTH of a relationship
2. DIRECTION of a relationship


Correlation coefficient- a number between

-1.00 to +1.00 that shows the:
1. STRENGTH of a relationship
. The closer to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger
the relationship between the variables
no correlation = 0.0
perfect correlation = -1.00 or +1.00


DIRECTION OF A RELATIOSNHIP
Positive (direct) correlation: variables are related in the
same direction
as one increases, the other increases
as one decreases, the other decreases
Negative (inverse) correlation: variables are related in

opposite direction
as one increases, the other decreases
Figure 1.3 Five Scatterplots

These scatterplots show direction and strength of correlation. It should be noted that perfect correlations, whether
positive or negative, rarely occur in the real world.
Anything above
+1.00 or below
-1.00 is a
computation
error
10 minutes to study

3 Types of Research Methods

Descriptive
Correlational
Experimental

The Experiment
LO 1.10 Designing an Experiment
AP: Operational Definitions
Experimental method- research for behavior & mental

processing that seeks to determine cause and effect.
Control: all variables except one
Isolated, measurable

The Experiment
AP: Operational Definitions
Population: a complete group of organisms

(target)
Sample: subset of a population
A) random: all members in a population have an
equal chance of being selected
B) stratified: drawn so that pertinent characteristics
of the population are represented in the same
proportion as they occur in the sample
From Population to Sample

AP: Different Types of Research/Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Representative sample:
Randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population
of subjects
Population
Representative
Sample

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009

The Experiment
Random Sampling from Population
INFERENCE
POPULATION
SAMPLE
The Experiment
AP: Identify Variables in Experimental Designs
Independent variable (IV)

the variable in an experiment that is manipulated
by the experimenter (treatment)
IV: violent TV
Dependent variable (DV)

the variable in an experiment that represents the
measurable response or behavior of the subjects
in the experiment (whats being measured)
DV: aggressive play
The Experiment
Hypothesis: a specific prediction that a

theory makes.
If/then statement
My theory is that watching violent television
causes violent behavior in 4th graders.
Hypothesis: If 4th graders watch violent
television, then they will act violently.

The Experiment
Experimental group (participants)

subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the
independent variable
experimental group: watch TV

The Experiment
Control group (participants)

subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the
independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment
(controls for confounding variables).
control group: no TV

The Experiment
Random assignment
the process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control
groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of
being in either group
controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables

The Experiment
Random Assignment
SAMPLE
Experimental Group
Test for Differences

Control Group

The Experiment
Confounding Variables
SAMPLE
Experimental Group
Are differences due to manipulation

or confounding variable (mood)?
Control Group

The Experiment
No Confounding Variables
SAMPLE
Experimental Group
Differences are due to manipulation,

not an extraneous variable, because
mood is randomly determined.
Control Group

The Experiment
Experimenter effect
tendency of the experimenters expectations for a study to
unintentionally influence the results of the study

The Experiment
Blind study
Subjects dont know whether or not they received treatment
Double-blind study
neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which subjects
are in the experimental or control group (reduces placebo effect
and experimenter effect)

The Experiment
Placebo effect
the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in
a study can influence their behavior

Identifying Parts of a Hypothesis

If 4th graders watch violent television, then they will act
violently.
4th graders= participants
violent television= independent variable
Violently= dependent variable

Identifying Parts of a Hypothesis

If 3rd graders drink caffeine, then they will be hyperactive.
Who are the subjects (participants)?
3rd graders
What is the independent variable?
caffeine
What is the dependent variable?
hyperactive
Example of a Real Experiment

LO 1.12 Conducting a Real World Experiment
Hypothesis
knowing that other people might think ones success in school
is due to athletic ability rather than intelligence can make an
athlete perform poorly on an academic test
Independent variable
timing of high threat question
Dependent variable
test scores
Example of a Real Experiment

LO 1.12 Conducting a Real World Experiment
Experimental group
answered high threat question before taking
the test
Control group
answered high threat question after taking
the test
Results-supported hypothesis
those asked the high threat question before
the intellectual test scored significantly lower
on that test
Experiment Practice
Please complete the handout over creating an
experiment and hypothesis.

Please pick up two pieces of white paper

From Sample to Population

Population Population Parameters
Inference
Sample Statistics

Statistics from a sample

allow psychologists to take
what is known and make a
leap into the unknown, but
possible
Statistics in Psychology
LO 1.13 Why Statistics Are Important to Psychologists and Psychology Majors
AP: Apply Basic Descriptive Statistical Concepts

Statistics: the branch of mathematics that

is concerned with the collection and
interpretation of data from samples
Sample: a group of people selected
(usually at random) from a larger
population of people
Statistics help psychologists
see if groups differ from each other
see if two variables are related to each other
Statistics in Psychology
LO 1.13 Why Statistics Are Important to Psychologists and Psychology Majors
AP: Apply Basic Descriptive Statistical Concepts

Descriptive statistics: a way of organizing

and summarizing numbers
Measures of central tendency: used to
summarize data and give you one score
typical of your sample
Mean, median, mode
Measures of variability(dispersion/variation):
indicate how spread out the data are
Range, standard deviation
Representing Data
LO 1.14 How Tables and Graphs Represent Patterns in Data
Frequency distribution: a table

or graph that shows how often
different scores appear in a
set of scores

Representing Data
Scatter Plots
Is there a
positive or
negative
correlation
between hours
of video games
played and
grade point
average?
Representing Data
Histogram (bar graph showing

frequency distribution)

Polygon (line graph)
Representing Data
The normal curve (bell curve)

Very useful because it has very
specific relationships to
measures of central tendency
and measures of variability
Standard deviation

Representing Data
Skewed distribution
Positive or negative

Representing Data
Bimodal distribution

Statistics and Central Tendencies

LO 1.15 Statistics that Examine Central Tendencies
Measure of central tendency: the number that best represents

the central part of a frequency distribution
Mean: arithmetic average
outliers
Median: the score that falls in the middle of an ordered distribution

of scores
Not affected by outliers
Mode: the most frequent score is taken as the central score


When the distribution is normal, the mean, median, and

mode are very similar
Skewed distributions
The mean is pulled in the direction of the tail of the distribution
The mode is still the highest point
The median is between the two




Bimodal distributions
None of the measures of central tendency will do you much
good
You must discover why there are two groups in your one
distribution

Measures of Variability
LO 1.16 Statistics that Examine Variations in Data
Measures of variability are used to find out how spread

out scores are from one another
Range: the difference between the highest score and the
lowest score
Standard deviation: the square root of the average squared
difference, or deviation, of the scores from the mean of the
distribution

Measures of Variability
LO 1.16 Statistics that Examine Variations in Data

Inferential Statistics
LO 1.17 How Statistics Determine Whether or Not Differences in Data Sets Are Due to Chance Variation
Inferential statistics: allow researchers to make

conclusions about research results and determine
generalizability
Statistical significance: how likely differences are to
be real and not just caused by random variations
p = probability; if p < .05, then 95 out of 100 behaviors
(actions, events) were caused by the independent variable
Significant difference: a difference not due to

chance


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Psychology:

1. What do you observe in the picture?

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Predict Validity Based on Research Design

Why we need psychological research

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Four basic criteria for critical thinking in

The Scientific Method

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology and the Scientific Method

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology and the Scientific Method

Steps in the scientific method:

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Different Types of Research

Naturalistic observation: disadvantages

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Different Types of Research

Naturalistic observation: disadvantages

Describes, but doesnt explain behavior

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Different Types of Research

Disadvantage: artificial situation may result in artificial behavior

Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Different Types of Research

Case study- obtaining biographical

AP: Different Types of Research

Survey/Questionnaire: a method of obtaining information

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Different Types of Research

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

Copyright 2015, 2012, 2009

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Different Types of Research

Given to representative sample

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Research Design/ Different Types of Research

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Research Design/ Different Types of Research

Correlation is a prediction: from knowledge of

AP: Research Design/ Different Types of Research

Correlation coefficient- a number between

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Research Design/ Different Types of Research

Correlation coefficient- a number between

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Research Design/ Different Types of Research

Negative (inverse) correlation: variables are related in

Figure 1.3 Five Scatterplots

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

3 Types of Research Methods

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Operational Definitions

Experimental method- research for behavior & mental

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

AP: Operational Definitions

Population: a complete group of organisms