CHAPTER THREE

SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND

INTERFACING CIRCUITS

Introduction
The output of sensors is usually small or not suitable to directly
process or present it.
Thus conditioning or suiting of the signal is necessary.
Signal conditioners are circuit that takes the output of a sensor or
transducer and converts it in to a form more suitable for further
processing or presenting.

Some of Signal conditioners

Amplification
Attenuation
Filtering (high pass, low pass, band pass, or band stop)
Differentiation
Integration
Linearization
Converting a resistance to a voltage signal (briges)

3.2 Deflection Bridge

The Deflection Bridge finds an extensive application in electrical
instrumentation for conditioning the output of sensors typically if the
sensor output is variation of resistance, inductance and capacitance.
The deflection bridge has four arms of impedance
Initially all impedances values of the deflection bridge are adjusted in
such a way that the measured voltage at the detector is zero
at this moment the bridge is called at balanced condition or null
condition
Mathematically At balanced condition Vo=0

Types of Deflection Bridge

Deflection brides are classified depending up on:Energy source as DC or AC bridges
The impedances as resistive, or reactive (inductive, capacitive) bridges
Depending up on the number of sensors present on the bridge arm as quarter, half
and full Deflection Bridge

(a) DC Bridges
With a d-c galvanometer used as a detector and resistive arms the bridge becomes
a dc bridge known as Wheatstone bridge
The Wheatstone bridge is usually used to measure resistance values ranging from
1 ohm to 1mega ohm
For low resistance the Kelvin double bridge is used

(b)AC Bridges
Based on these balance conditions various a-c bridges are used in practice under
the broad classification of capacitance and inductance bridges.

Design of Resistive Deflection Bridge

The resistive deflection bridge usually is exited by DC sources and depending up on
the number of sensors present on the bridge arm it is called as quarter, half and full
deflection Bridge. these are used to convert a variation of resistance into voltage

Cont.
Quarter-bridge This arrangement, with a single element of the bridge changing
resistance in response to the measured variable.
Half-bridge This arrangement, with a two element of the bridge changing
resistance in response to the measured variable.
Full-bridge This arrangement, with a four elements of the bridge changing
resistance in response to the measured variable.

Cont.
In a strain gauge, the relation between strain, gage factor and resistance is give
R/Ro=F
Where F is gauge factor and is strain, R is the unstrained resistance
R=F Ro

Effect of lead wire resistance

Practically the third wire carries no current (due to the voltmeter's

extremely high internal resistance) and its resistance will not drop
any substantial amount of voltage.

Cont.
when the upper gauge is compressed, the lower gauge will stretched,
and vice versa we will have both gauges responding to strain, and the
bridge will be more responsive to applied force. This utilization is
known as a half-bridge.

Increasing the sensitivity and linearity

Alternatively, one can double the sensitivity of the bridge to strain by making both
gauges active. one bridge mounted in tension (RG + R) and the other mounted in
compression (RG - R). This is called half-bridge configuration yields an output
voltage that is linear and approximately doubles the output of the quarter-bridge
circuit.

Cont.

Since both strain gauges will either increase or decrease resistance by the
same proportion in response to changes in temperature, the effects of
temperature change remain canceled and the circuit will suffer minimal
temperature-induced measurement error: Vo/Vi=-GF /2

Cont.
it may be advantageous to make all four elements of the bridge "active" for even
greater sensitivity. This is called a full-bridge circuit
Quarter-bridge and half-bridge circuits provide an output (imbalance) signal that is
only approximately proportional to applied strain gauge force.
Linearity, or proportionality, of these bridge circuits is best when the amount of
resistance change due to applied force is very small compared to the nominal
With a full-bridge, however, the output voltage is directly proportional to applied
force, with no approximation.

2. Amplifiers
Since most of the electrical signals produced by most sensors or transducers are
low voltage or power level
An Amplifier is an electronic device used to increase the size of a voltage or
current signal without changing the signals basic characteristics.

Operational amplifier (OPAMP)

Opamp have two inputs indicated by and + sign which stands for inverting and non
inverting inputs as show below.
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
An ideal OPAMP have characteristics of
(a) high input amplification
(b) high input impedance: thus current is not drawn from the input
(c) low output impedance: there is no voltage drop at the output
(d) low offset voltage: low drift

Common opamp circuit configurations

Voltage comparator
Inverting amplifier
Non inverting amplifier
Summing amplifier
Voltage follower
Differential amplifier
Integrating amplifier
Differentiating amplifier

a. Voltage comparator
This is used for comparing input voltages, it is a differential amplifier
If v2>v1 the output voltage is positive
If v2<v1the output voltage is negative
If v2=v1, then the output voltage is zero

b. Inverting amplifier
The out put is an inverted (opposite polarity) form of the input
voltage

c. Non inverting amplifier

The out put is the non inverted form of the input

d. Summing amplifier
The output is the sum of the input voltages

e. Voltage follower
The output is the same as the input. The advantage of the circuit is
lies in high input impedance avoiding loading effect that may occur; it
is also referred to as buffer circuit.
f. Differential amplifier
The output is used to amplify the difference of inputs

Instrumentation Amplifier (INA)

An instrumentation amplifier (INA) is specially designed amplifier to
have differential gain, high input impedance, and high CMRR ratio.
Basically it is buffered a differential amplifier so as to have high input
impedance.