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AminoAcidsarethebuildingunitsofproteins.Proteinsare
polymers of amino acids linked together by what is called
Peptidebond(seelatter).
Thereareabout300aminoacidsoccurinnature.Only20of
themoccurinproteins.
Structureofaminoacids:
Each amino acid has 4 different groups attached to carbon
( which is Catom next to COOH). These 4 groups are : amino
group,COOHgp,
Hydrogenatomandside
Chain(R)
AtphysiologicalPH(7.4),COOHgpisdissociatedforminga
negatively charged carboxylate ion (COO) and amino gp is
protonated forming positively charged ion (NH3+) forming
Zwitterion
N.B.Prolineisaniminoacidnotaminoacid(seelatter)
Classificationofaminoacids
IChemicalclassification:AccordingtonumberofCOOHand
NH2groupsi.e.accordingtonetchargeonaminoacid.
AMonobasic,monocarboxylicaminoacidsi.e.neutralor
uncharged:
(Lecture 2):
B Basic amino acids: Contain two or more NH2 groups or
nitrogen atoms that act as base i.e. can
bind proton.
At physiological pH, basic amino acids will be positively charged.
e.g.
a- Lysine
b- Arginine: contains guanido group
c- Histidine: is an example on basic heterocyclic amino acids
C- AcidicAminoacids:atphysiologicalpHwillcarrynegative
charge.
e.g.Asparticacid(aspartate)andGlutamicacid(glutamate).see
structuresinhandout.
AspargineandGlutamine:Theyareamideformsofaspartateand
glutamateinwhichsidechainCOOHgroupsareamidated.
Theyareclassifiedasneutralaminoacids.
IIClassificationaccordingtopolarityofsidechain(R):
APolaraminoacids:inwhichRcontainspolarhydrophilicgroupso
canformshydrogenbondwithH2O.Inthoseaminoacids,Rmay
contain:
1OH group :asinserine,threonineandtyrosine
2- SH group :asincysteine
3- amide group: asinglutamineandaspargine
4- NH2 group or nitrogen act as a base (basic amino acids ): aslysine,
arginineandhistidine
5- COOH group ( acidic amino acids): asasparticandglutamic.
BNonpolaraminoacids:
Risalkylhydrophobicgroupwhichcantenterinhydrogenbonf
formation.9aminoacidsarenonpolar(glycine,alanine,valine,leucine,
isoleucine,phenylalanine,tryptophan,prolineandmethionine)
IIINutritionalclassification:
1Essentialaminoacids:Theseaminoacidscantbeformedinthe
body and so, it is essential to be taken in diet. Their deficiency
affectsgrowth,healthandproteinsynthesis.
2Semiessentialaminoacids:Theseareformedinthebodybutnot
insufficientamountforbodyrequirementsespeciallyinchildren.
Summaryofessentialandsemiessentialaminoacids:
VillaHM=TenThousandsPound
V=valinei=isoleucinel=lysinel=leucine
A=arginine*H=histidine*M=methionine
T=tryptophanTh=threonineP=phenylalanine
*=arginineandhistidinearesemiessential
3Nonessentialaminoacids:Thesearetherestofaminoacidsthat
areformedinthebodyinamountenoughforadultsandchildren.
Theyaretheremaining10aminoacids.
IVMetabolicclassification:accordingtometabolicordegradation
productsofaminoacidstheymaybe:
1Ketogenicaminoacids:whichgiveketonebodies.Lysineand
Leucinearetheonlypureketogenicaminoacids.
2Mixedketogenicandglucogenicaminoacids:whichgiveboth
ketonbodiesandglucose.Theseare:isoleucine,phenylalanine,tyrosine
andtryptophan.
3Glucogenicaminoacids:Whichgiveglucose.Theyincludetherest
ofaminoacids.Theseaminoacidsbycatabolismyieldsproductsthat
enteringlycogenandglucoseformation.
PeptidesandProteins
20aminoacidsarecommonlyfoundinprotein.
These 20 amino acids are linked together through peptide bond
formingpeptidesandproteins(whatsthedifference?).
The chains containing less than 50 amino acids are called
peptides, while those containing greater than 50 amino acids
arecalledproteins.
Peptidebondformation:
-carboxyl group of one amino acid (with side chain R1)
forms a covalent peptide bond with -amino group of another
amino acid ( with the side chain R2) by removal of a molecule of
water. The result is : Dipeptide ( i.e. Two amino acids linked by
one peptide bond). By the same way, the dipeptide can then
forms a second peptide bond with a third amino acid (with side
chain R3) to give Tripeptide. Repetition of this process generates
a polypeptide or protein of specific amino acid sequence.
- Each polypeptide chain starts on the left side by free amino group of
the first amino acid enter in chain formation . It is termed (N- terminus).
- Each polypeptide chain ends on the right side by free COOH group of
the last amino acid and termed (C-terminus).
Examples on Peptides:
1- Dipeptide ( tow amino acids joined by one peptide bond):
Example: Aspartamewhichactsassweeteningagentbeingusedin
replacement of cane sugar. It is composed of aspartic acid and
phenylalanine.
2Tripeptides(3aminoacidslinkedbytwopeptidebonds).
Example:GSHwhichisformedfrom3aminoacids:glutamicacid,
cysteineandglycine.Ithelpsinabsorptionofaminoacids,protects
against hemolysis of RBC by breaking H2O2 which causes cell
damage.
3octapeptides:(8aminoacids)
Examples:Twohormones;oxytocineandvasopressin(ADH).
4polypeptides:1050aminoacids:e.g.Insulinhormone
Protein structure:
There are four levels of protein structure (primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary)
Primary structure:
Theprimarystructureofaproteinisits
uniquesequenceofaminoacids.
Lysozyme,anenzymethatattacksbacteria,
consistsofapolypeptidechainof129
aminoacids.
Thepreciseprimarystructureofaproteinis
determinedbyinheritedgenetic
information.
At one end is an amino acid with a free
aminogroupthe(theNterminus)andatthe
otherisanaminoacidwithafreecarboxyl
groupthe(theCterminus).
HighordersofProteinstructure
Afunctionalproteinisnotjustapolypeptidechain,butoneor
more polypeptides precisely twisted, folded and coiled into a
moleculeofuniqueshape(conformation).Thisconformationis
essential for some protein function e.g. Enables a protein to
recognize and bind specifically to another molecule e.g.
hormone/receptor;enzyme/substrateandantibody/antigen.
2Secondarystructure:
Results from hydrogen bond
formation between hydrogen of NH
group of peptide bond and the carbonyl
oxygen of another peptide bond.
According to Hbonding there are two
mainformsofsecondarystructure:
helix: Itisaspiralstructureresulting
from hydrogen bonding between one
peptidebondandthefourthone
sheets:isanotherformofsecondary
structure in which two or more
polypeptides (or segments of the same
peptide chain) are linked together by
hydrogenbondbetweenHofNHofone
chain and carbonyl oxygen of adjacent
chain(orsegment).
Hydrogenbondinginhelix:InthehelixCOoftheoneamino
acidresidueformsHbondwithNHoftheforthone.
SupersecondarystructureorMotifs:
occursbycombiningsecondarystructure.
Thecombinationmaybe:helixturnhelixturn..etc
Or:sheetturnsheetturnetc
Or:helixturnsheetturnhelix
Turn(orbend):isshortsegmentofpolypeptides(34aminoacids)
thatconnectssuccessivesecondarystructures.
e.g.turn:issmallpolypeptidethatconnectssuccessivestrandsof
sheets.
Tertiary structure is
determinedbyavarietyof
interactions(bondformation)
amongRgroupsandbetweenR
groupsandthepolypeptide
backbone.
a. Theweakinteractionsinclude:
Hydrogenbondsamongpolar
sidechains
Ionicbondsbetween
chargedR
groups(basicandacidicamino
acids)
Hydrophobic
interactionsamong
hydrophobic(nonpolar)R
groups.
Quaternarystructure: resultsfromtheaggregation(combination)oftwo
ormorepolypeptidesubunitsheldtogetherbynoncovalentinteractionlikeH
bonds,ionicorhydrophobicinteractions.
Examplesonproteinhavingquaternarystructure:
Collagen is a fibrous protein of three polypeptides (trimeric) that are
supercoiledlikearope.
Thisprovidesthestructuralstrengthfortheirroleinconnectivetissue.
Hemoglobinisaglobularproteinwithfourpolypeptidechains(tetrameric)
Insulin:twopolypeptidechains(dimeric)
Classificationofproteins
ISimpleproteins:
i.e.onhydrolysisgivesonlyaminoacids
Examples:
1Albuminandglobulins:presentinegg,milkandblood
They are proteins of high biological value i.e. contain all essential
aminoacidsandeasilydigested.
Typesofglobulins:
1globulin:e.g.antitrypsin:seelater
2 globulin: e.g. hepatoglobin: protein that binds hemoglobin to
preventitsexcretionbythekidney
globulin:e.g.transferrin:proteinthattransportiron
-globulins = Immunoglobulins (antibodies) : responsible for
immunity.
Collagenmaybepresentasgele.g.inextracellularmatrix
orinvitreoushumoroftheeye.
Collagens are the most important protein in mammals.
Theyformabout30%oftotalbodyproteins.
There are more than 20 types of collagens, the most
commontypeiscollagenIwhichconstitutesabout90%of
cellcollagens.
Structure of collagen: three helical polypeptide chains
(trimeric) twisted around each other forming triplethelix
molecule.
of structure is glycine, 10% proline, 10%
hydroxyprolineand1%hydroxylysine.Glycineisfoundin
everythirdpositionofthechain.Therepeatingsequence
GlyXY, where X is frequently proline and Y is often
hydroxyprolineandcanbehydroxylysine.
Solubility:collagenisinsolubleinallsolventsandnotdigested.
When collagen is heated with water or dil. HCl it will be converted
into gelatin which is soluble , digestible and used as diet ( as jelly).
Gelatinisclassifiedasderivedprotein.
Somecollagendiseases:
1 Scurvy: disease due to deficiency of vitamin C which is important
coenzymeforconversionofprolineintohydroxyprolineandlysineinto
hydroxylysine. Thus, synthesis of collagen is decreased leading to
abnormal bone development, bleeding, loosing of teeth and swollen
gum.
2 Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI): Inherited disease resulting from
geneticdeficiencyormutationingenethatsynthesizescollagentypeI
leading to abnormal bone formation in babies and frequent bone
fractureinchildren.Itmaybelethal.
CElastin:presentinwallsoflargebloodvessels(suchasaorta).Itis
veryimportantinlungs,elasticligaments,skin,cartilage,..
Itiselasticfiberthatcanbestretchedtoseveraltimesasitsnormal
length.
Structure: composed of 4 polypeptide chains (tetramer), similar to
collagenbeinghaving33%glycineandrichinprolinebut
in that it has low hydroxyproline and absence of hydroxy
lysine.
Emphysema: is a chronic obstructive lung disease (obstruction of air
ways) resulting from deficiency of 1antitrypsin
particularlyincigarettesmokers.
Role of 1antitrypsin: Elastin is a lung protein. Smoke stimulate
enzyme called elastase to be secreted form neutrophils (in
lung).Elastasecausedestructionofelastinoflung.
2Lipoproteins:
Theseareproteinsconjugatedwithlipids.
Functions:ahelplipidstotransportinblood
bEnterincellmembranestructurehelpinglipid
solublesubstancestopassthroughcellmembranes.
3Glycoproteins:
proteinsconjugatedwithsugar(carbohydrate)
e.g.Mucin
Somehormonessuchaserythropoeitin
presentincellmembranestructure
bloodgroups.
4Nucleoproteins:Thesearebasicproteins(e.g.histones)
conjugatedwithnucleicacid(DNAorRNA).
e.g.achromosomes:areproteinsconjugatedwithDNA
bRibosomes:areproteinsconjugatedwithRNA
5Metalloproteins:Theseareproteinsconjugatedwithmetallike
iron,copper,zinc,
aIroncontainingproteins:Ironmaypresentinhemesuchasin
hemoglobin(Hb)
myoglobin(proteinofskeletalmusclesandcardiacmuscle),
cytochromes,
catalase,peroxidases(destroyH2O2)
tryptophanpyrrolase(desrtroyindoleringoftryptophan).
Ironmaybepresentinfreestate(notinheme)asin:
Ferritin:Mainstoreofironinthebody.ferritinis
presentinliver,spleenandbonemarrow.
Hemosidrin:anotherironstore.
Transferrin:istheironcarrierproteininplasma.
bCoppercontainingproteins:
e.g.Ceruloplasminwhichoxidizesferrousionsintoferricions.
Oxidaseenzymessuchascytochromeoxidase.
cZncontainingproteins:e.g.Insulinandcarbonicanhydrase
dMgcontainingproteins:e.g.Kinasesandphosphatases.
6Chromoproteins:Theseareproteinsconjugatedwithpigment.e.g.
Allproteinscontainingheme(Hb,myoglobin,..)
Melanoprotein:e.gproteinsofhairoririswhichcontainmelanin.
Derivedproteins
Producedfromhydrolysisofsimpleproteins.
e.g.Gelatin:fromhydrolysisofcollagen
Peptone:fromhydrolysisofalbumin