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laboratory stereotype
The second stereotype, A brilliant
individual who thinks, spins complex
theories, and generally spends his time in
the ivory tower. This scientist is a rather
impractical theorist, even though his
thinking and theory occasionally lead to
results of practical significance like atomic
bombs.
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Heuristic
A heuristic method of teaching, for
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A Theory
A theory is a set of interrelated construct
A Theory, continued
Finally, a theory explains phenomena. It
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Scientific Research
Scientific research is systematic,
Problem-Obstacle-Idea
Hypothesis
Reasoning-Deduction
Observation-Test-Experiment
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Problem-Obstacle-Idea
The scientist will usually experience an
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a conjectural statement,
a tentative proposition, about the
relation between two or more
phenomena or variables. The scientist
will say, If such-and-such occur, then
so-and-so result.
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Reasoning Deduction
The scientist now deduces the consequences
Observation-Test-Experiment
The essence of testing a hypothesis is to test
Problem
If one wants to solve a problem, one
Problem, continued
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A good Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the
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Variables
Scientist somewhat loosely call the construct or
Types of Variables
Variables can be classified in
several ways. :
1. Independent and dependent
variables
2. Active and attributive variables
3. Continuous and categorical
variables
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An independent-and dependent
variables
An independent-and dependent
variables, continued
Sets
Sciences works basically with group, class,
Set Operation
There are two basic set operations:
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Set Diagrams
Look at Fig.4.2. is represented by the
A
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Fig. 4.3
We diagram A B ; A is a subset of B. in
Fig. 4.5
A
U
A B
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Relations
Relation are the essence of science.
Cohen says,science is not a knowledge of mere
Relation, continued
Is it a fact that a stone is hard? To speak
Information Box
Achievement (School, Arithmetic,
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Achievement
136
55
125
57
118
42
110
48
100
42
97
35
90
32
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Relation defined
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. Any
Functions
A function is a rule, a rule of
Variance
To study scientific problems and to answer
Calculation of Means
Take the set of numbers X = {1, 2, 3,
4, 5}. The mean is defined:
M = X /n n = number of cases in
the set of scores
= means the sum of
M = (1+2+3+4+5) / 5 = 15/5 = 3
The mean of the set X is 3.
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Calculating of Variance
V = x2 / n
X
x2
-2
x2 = the sum of
squares.
x is deviation from
the mean, x = X-M
-1
X = 15, M = 3,
x2 = 10
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= 10/5 = 2
The variance is also called the mean square,
because it is the mean of the x2s.
The variance is a measure of the dispersion of the
set of scores. It tell us how much the scores
are spread out. If a group of pupils is very
heterogeneous in reading achievement, then the
variance of their reading scores will be large
compared to the the variance of a group that is
homogeneous in reading achievement.
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Kinds of Variance
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Systematic Variance
Systematic variance is the variation in
Between-Groups Variance
Between-groups or experimental variance is
30
x
6
x2
36
23
-1
19
-5
25
X = 72; M = 24
x2 = 62
Vb = 62/3 = 20.67
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Error Variance
Error variance is the fluctuation or