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‡ Limited number of frequencies => limited channels
‡ Single high power antenna => limited number of users
‡ Smaller cells => frequency reuse possible => more number of users

‡ Base stations (BS): implement space division multiplex

± Each BS covers a certain transmission area (cell)
± Each BS is allocated a portion of the total number of channels available
± Cluster: group of nearby BSs that together use all available channels
‡ Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
± FDMA, TDMA, CDMA may be used within a cell

‡ As demand increases (more channels are needed)

± Number of base stations is increased
± Transmitter power is decreased correspondingly to avoid interference
 i 
 
‡ Cell size:
± 100 m in cities to 35 km on the country side (GSM)
± even less for higher frequencies
± Umbrella cell: large cell that includes several smaller cells
‡ Avoid frequent handoffs for fast moving traffic

‡ Cell shape:
± Hexagonal is useful for theoretical analysis
± Practical footprint (radio coverage area) is amorphous

‡ BS placement:
± Center-excited cell: BS near center of cell
‡ omni-directional antenna
± Edge-excited cell: BSs on three of the six cell vertices
‡ sectored directional antennas
 i 
 
‡ Advantages:
± higher capacity, higher number of users
± less transmission power needed
± more robust, decentralized
± base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
‡ Problems:
± fixed network needed for the base stations
± handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
± interference with other cells: co-channel, adjacent-channel

‡ Important Issues:
± Cell sizing
± Frequency reuse planning
± Channel allocation strategies

Bottom line: Attempt to maximize availability of channels in an area

 Cellular Geometries

Hexagonal pattern is preferred coz it supports

equidistant to all adjacent cells.
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‡Equal area
‡No overlap between the cells

For a given S, A3>A1 and A3>A2.

Here A3 covers maximum area for a given value of S.
By using hexagon geometry, the fewest number of cells
covers a given geographic region.
 The hexagon is closely
approximates a circular
radiation pattern which
would occur for an omni
directional base station
antenna and free space
propagation
Ideal Cell Hexagonal cell
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The signal to interference
ratio (3 or S/I) gives an
indication of the quality of
the received signal.
Smaller the cluster sizes,
closer the reuse distance
and therefore larger the
system capacity or total
number of possible users.
But increases cost,
complexity of the network,
lower SIR and hence
decrease in radio link
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If a particular FDD cellular telephone system has a total bandwidth of
33 MHz, and if the phone system uses two 25 KHz simplex channels to
provide full duplex voice and control channels. Compute the number of
channels per cell if N = 4, 7, 12.
 
Total bandwidth = 33 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 KHz x 2 = 50 KHz
Total avail. channels = 33 MHz / 50 KHz = 660
N = 4, Channel per cell = 660 / 4 =165 channels
N = 7, Channel per cell = 660 / 7 =95 channels
N = 12, Channel per cell = 660 / 12 =55 channels
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‡ Maximize frequency reuse
‡ Determine minimum size cluster
± To calculate interference levels
‡ 

R = cell radius
N = reuse pattern= i2 + ij + j2
D = reuse distance
‡ If N is small, closer is reuse distance (D), larger is system
capacity
‡ If D is reduced, increases subscribers that can be
handled, increases cost of network hardware
 N = i2 + ij + j2
N = 22 + 2*1 + 12
N=4+2+1
N=7

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The cluster size is specified in terms of the offset of the

center of a cluster from the center of the adjacent cluster
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N = 22 + 2*0 + 02
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‡ Due to more users
‡ Techniques
± Additional frequency spectrum
‡ Expensive
± Change in architecture
‡ Sectoring
‡ Cell splitting
‡ Overlaid cell schemes
± Channel allocation scheme
‡ Traffic parameters
± Next generation technology adaptation
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‡ The Problems of sectoring can be addressed by
Microcell Zone Concept
‡ A cell is conceptually divided into microcells or zones
‡ Each microcell (zone) is connected to the same base
station (fiber/microwave link)
± Doing something in middle of cell splitting and sectoring by
extracting good points of both
‡ Each zone uses a directional antenna
‡ Each zone radiates power into the cell.
‡ MS is served by strongest zone
‡ As mobile travels from one zone to another, it retains the
same channel, i.e no hand off
‡ The BS simply switches the channel to the next zone site
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‡ Divides a large cell into smaller regions called microcells
‡ Large-power antenna is replaced with multiple low-power antennas
‡ It rescales system by reducing cell size
‡ Advantages:
± Allows orderly growth of the system
± The number of cells in an area increases
± Number of clusters increases
± Capacity increases
± Maintain the co-channel reuse ratio
‡ More frequent handoffs between cells specially for high mobility
users
‡ More equipment: Cost issues with buying the equipment. A cell site
costs in the range of $650,000-$800,000
‡ Power Remote generation equipment required that is a cost
and a security problem
‡Suppose original congested

area is originally covered by 5 !

cells each with 80 channels 
‡Capacity=5x80=400 users 

‡After cell splitting, Rnew= R/2
We now have 24 cells  
‡New capacity = 24x80 = 19200
users
For n = 4,Transmit Power
of New BS is 12 dB lower than
original
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‡ By subdividing a cell into sectors, we can
increase the capacity
± 3-sector cell (each sector is 1200)
± 6-sector cell (each sector is 600)
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‡ Replace an omni-directional antenna with
directional antennas
‡ Point them to reduce co-channel
interference
‡ Sectors are based on either 1200 or 600
sectoring
‡ Divide cell channel pool among the
sectors in the cell
Tri-Sector antenna for a cell
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‡ Antennas are placed
at the outer edges of
the cell
‡ Any channel may be
assigned to any zone
by the base station
‡ Mobile is served by
the zone with the
strongest signal.
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‡ Advantages:
‡ Improves the SIR of the system
‡ A gain of ~ 7 dB is achieved over
omnidirectional systems when 1200
sectoring is used.
‡ Problems:
‡ Increased handoff requirements
‡ Multiple antennas are required in a BS
‡ Decreased trunking efficiency (less
number of channels per sector)
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‡ 2 methods to increase C1
A1
capacity D2 B1

± For split band analog systems C2 A2

D3 B2
‡ Using macrocell, microcells
‡ Requires dual mode mobile A3
C3 B3
systems
± For GSM or TDM
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systems B1 B1
 C1 C2
± Use same base stations  

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‡ Traffic in each cell is dynamic
± Ex - sporting events, rock concerts, natural disasters
± Change with time
‡ Portable cellular sites
± COW (cell on wheels)
‡ Channel allocation techniques
‡ To avoid non-availability of service
± Blocking
± Configure entire network capacity
± Should be less than 2%
‡ Stabilizes temporal fluctuations of blockage
± Minimize call blocking probability
± Serve subscribers effectively
‡ 3 methods to achieve efficient channel allocation
± Fixed channel scheme
‡ Fine tune the system where needed
‡ Instead of equally dividing up channels over cells, some cells
will receive larger channel allocations.
‡ Periodically update
± Channel borrowing
‡ High traffic cells borrow channels from low traffic cells
‡ Other cells in the cell lose that frequency
‡ Channel returned after traffic is cleared
± Dynamic channel allocation (DCA)
‡ Available channel are placed in channel pool
‡ Each channel assigned new call based on Signal to
interference statistics
‡ Channel used until SIR is met
‡ Complex
‡ Every cell site must be capable of transmitting every one of
system¶s assigned channels
  
   

‡ Lee¶s Microcell technology

± Sectoring increases handoffs increasing loads
on switching elements
± Use zones instead of sectors
± Reduce number of hand offs
± Uses 3 antennas in a cell connected to same
RBS
± Antenna with best reception used for uplink
and downlink
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‡ 9
;  ± ³Getting data to the network backbone³ or transmitting from a remote site or
network to a central or main site
‡ )7
± Voice 'voice + data
± Change in requirements for PSTN and PDN
± Separate facilities for voice and data networks
‡ *7
± Voice band signals are transcoded (compressed and reformatted) at BSC
± Fiber optic cables between MSC and PSTN
± Minimized costs
± CDMA had IWF for data but same connection maintained for voice
‡ *47

*4+7
± Own private wideband networks to backhaul both voice and data between MSC and
BS
‡ 7%
± Packet switched networks
± GPRS, PLMN added
± Access web sites through private servers

‡ /7
± High speed data services
± All IP network, ATM
± SONET/SDH
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‡ Characteristics/features
± Provide mobility to user
± Contrasting wireless and PSTN network
± Location management
± Location update
± Paging messages
± Handoff management
 !   
‡ Keeping track of user¶s present location
± Eg. Voice call through PSTN
‡ Working
When a call is made that passes through PSTN,
± Dedicated traffic channel set up from BS to MS
± PSTN sets up circuit over fixed part of network
± Wireless network allocates radio channels for air interface
± For this MS location must be known
‡ Objectives
± Provide continuous radio link
± Direct the packet in a network
± Determine MS status in network
± Check availability of the MS
‡ Basic functions
± Location updating
± paging messages
± transmission of location information between network elements
 !   
‡ Performed by MS
‡ MS attached to a base station and is
located initially
‡ Periodically checked for changes
‡ MS sends update message every time it
changes point of access in a network
‡ Exchange information for handoff
‡ If a connection fails, systems page group
of surrounding stations to track a MS
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‡ Balance required between number of update
messages and number of cells to be paged
‡ Greater degree of certainty in locating the MS
‡ Call blocking due to frequent paging
‡ 2 updating schemes
± Static
‡ Geographic layout determines updating requirements
± Dynamic
‡ User¶s mobility determines updating requirements
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‡ Incoming call/message to MS initiates paging of mobile
‡ Consists of
± Broadcasting message
‡ To bring response from a single particular mobile
‡ Starts communication processing
‡ Required if exact cell of mobile not known
‡ This information not available always
± Blanket paging
‡ Broadcast to all cells in a location area
‡ Initiates MS to respond
± Sequential paging
‡ Paged to the cell where it was last registered
‡ Parameters measured
± RSS (received signal strength)
± BER (bit error ratio)
± Symbol
± Block error rate
± Parameters can undergo fluctuations due to signal fading
 s   
‡ Handoff initiated when power from current
RBS drops
‡ Reduce ping-pong effect
± Handover to and fro between a cell pair
frequently
‡ Solution is to define threshold
‡ Fine tuning algorithm to improve system
performance
± Provide required QOS continuity during
handoff
  
 
 
 
‡ 1    ;  
        ;
± 
   :
Due to the broadcast nature of wireless communication, signals
interfere with each other. Power control helps ensure efficient
spectral reuse and desirable user experience.
± -   :
Due to limited battery power in mobile stations, handheld
devices, or any ³nodes´. Power control helps minimize a key
component of the overall energy expenditure.
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Due to uncertainty and time variation of wireless channels, the
receiver needs to be able to maintain a minimum level of
received signal so that it can stay connected with the transmitter
and estimate the channel state. Power control helps maintain
logical connectivity for a given signal processing scheme.
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± Received power must be sufficiently above
the background noise for effective
communication
± Desirable to minimize power in the
transmitted signal from the mobile
± Reduce co-channel interference, lessen
health concerns, save battery power
± Energy efficient hardware and software
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± Depends solely on mobile unit
± No feedback from BS
± Not as accurate as closed-loop, but can react quicker
to fluctuations in signal strength
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± Adjusts signal strength in reverse channel based on
metric of performance
± BS makes power adjustment decision and
communicates to mobile on control channel
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‡ Achieve SIR tolerance with good quality
communications
‡ Must constantly adjust to change in signal
strength caused by fading or mobility of MS
‡ Usual Power control algorithm has 2 phases
± Phase I:
‡ MS registers with BSS
‡ Determine minimum output power
‡ Avoid possibility of a call drop
± Phase II:
‡ Additional measurements to reduce power
‡ Output power of RBS is adjusted
‡ Use complex algorithms achieve maximum SIR
for all radio links
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± Transmit during speech only
± Extra over head
± Compensate low-power background during silence
± Adopted by MS, TRC, BSC also
‡  

± No activity
± RF circuitry is powered off
± Periodical awakening
‡ -



± Semiconductor technologies
± Power efficient modulation schemes
± Software/hardware design
± DSP technology
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‡ 3 


  
33% is the
system level control of co-channel interference
and other radio transmission characteristics in
wireless communication systems
‡ 1 
±  

33%
Involves manual as well as computer aided fixed cell
planning or radio network planning.
± ã  

33%
Adaptively adjust the radio network parameters to the
traffic load, user positions, quality of service
requirements, etc.
  
 
 
‡ Provide functional improvements for RF
operation
± Implement system power control to reduce
interference
± Maximize capacity from above concept
± Best available radio channel selection
± Use wireless radio resource management
scheme to enable handoff operations
 |




‡ Wireless medium has certain limitations
over the wired medium
± Open access
± Limited bandwidth
± Systems complexity
‡ 3G networks have a packet switched core
± Connected to external networks like Internet
± vulnerable to new types of attack
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‡ Authentication
‡ Integrity
‡ Confidentiality
‡ Access Control
‡ Operating Systems
‡ Web Services
‡ Location Detection
‡ Viruses And Malware
‡ Downloaded Contents
‡ Device Security
 |






‡ Limitations
‡ Security issues
‡ GSM security
± Global control equipment identity register (CEIR)
‡ Database in Dublin, Ireland
‡ List of handsets approved for GSM
‡ White/Black listed
± GSM cellular operators employ an EIR
‡ Keep track of handsets to be blocked
‡ Registered user of CEIR share database
± CEIR creates master black list for operator
 






‡ Identification
‡ Authentication
‡ Billing
‡ Maintenance
‡ All-IP network
± Increased management issues
± Prevent hacking of systems
± Software virus prevention
 




‡ Techniques
± Encryption
‡ Scrambling using key
‡ Secret key algorithms
‡ Prevent threat from global terrorism