Theories and

Causes
Chapter 2

What is Causing Jorges Problems?

Childrens problems must be considered in relation to multiple
levels of influence (individual, family, community, culture)
rather than be attributed to any one factor
Factors may be contained within the child or at various distances from
childs immediate surroundings

Possible causes of a childs behavior:

Biological influences
Emotional influences
Behavioral and cognitive influences
Family, cultural, and ethnic influences

Factors in each area impact and interact with the other areas

What is Causing Jorges Problems?

(contd.)

Theoretical Foundations
Defining child abnormality is complex and involves:
Context of childrens ongoing adaptation and development
Sorting out the most probable cause of identified problems

Study of abnormal child behavior requires an understanding of

developmental processes and of individual and situational
events that can influence the course and direction of a
particular childs life
Studying normal development informs our theories of
abnormal development, and vice versa

Theoretical Foundations (contd.)

Clinical and research activity begins with theoretical
formulations for guidance and information
Theory: a language of science that allows us to assemble and
communicate existing knowledge effectively
Allows us to make educated guesses and predictions about behavior
based on samples of knowledge

Etiology: the study of the causes of childhood disorders

Considers how biological, psychological, and environmental processes
interact to produce outcomes observed over time

Multiple, interactive causesrather than one-dimensional

modelshelp in understanding the complexity of disorders

Underlying Assumptions
Abnormal development is multiply determined
Must look beyond current symptoms and consider developmental
pathways and interacting events that, over time, contribute to the
expression of a disorder

Children and environments are interdependent

Transactional view: the dynamic interaction of child and environment
contributing the expression of a disorder
Both children and the environments are active contributors to adaptive
and maladaptive behavior
One cannot be separated from the other

Underlying Assumptions (contd.)

Abnormal development involves continuities and
discontinuities
Continuity: developmental changes are gradual and quantitative;
predictive of future behavior patterns
Well supported for early onset and persistent conduct disorders
Discontinuity: developmental changes are abrupt and qualitative; not
predictive of future behavior patterns
More common in eating disorders and autism

Changes: typical and atypical

Guidelines for the typical sequence of development are helpful, but age
in years is an arbitrary way to segment continuous sequences of
development

Underlying Assumptions (contd.)

An Integrative Approach
No single theoretical orientation can explain various behaviors
or disorders
Models that consider more than one primary cause are still limited by
the boundaries of their discipline or orientation
Each theory contributes one or more pieces of the puzzle of atypical
development

Abnormal child behavior is best studied from a multitheoretical perspective

Developmental
Considerations
Adaptational failure is the failure to master or progress in
accomplishing developmental milestones
Children with psychological disorders differ from children their own age
on some aspect of normal development
Failures or deviations typically result from an ongoing interaction
between individual development and environmental conditions

Causes and outcomes of abnormal child behavior operate in

dynamic and interactive ways over time, making them a
challenge to disentangle

Organization of Development
Early patterns of adaptation evolve with structure over time
and transform into higher-order functions
Prior patterns are incorporated into successive reorganizations at
subsequent periods of development

Implies an active, dynamic process of continual change and

transformation
Sensitive periods are windows of time during which
environmental influences on development are enhanced
Development is a process of increasing differentiation and
integration and proceeds in an organized, hierarchical manner
Current abilities or limitations are influenced by prior accomplishments
Each change influences further developmental success or failure

Developmental Psychopathology
Perspective
An approach to describing and studying disorders of childhood,
adolescence, and beyond in a way that stresses the
importance of developmental processes and tasks
Emphasizes role of developmental processes, importance of context,
and influence of multiple and interacting events in shaping adaptive
and maladaptive development

To understand maladaptive behavior, one must view it in

relation to what is considered normative
Multidisciplinary
Developmental cascades refer to the process by which a
childs previous interactions and experiences may spread
across other systems and alter course of development

Biological Perspectives
Neurobiological perspective: sees brain and nervous system
functions as underlying causes of psychological disorders
The fetal brain develops from all-purpose cells into a complex
organ made up of specialized, interconnected neurons
Embryonic development generates an initial overabundance of
neurons that are initially largely undifferentiated
As they reach their destinations, they become specialized and carry
electrical signals to other parts of the brain
Synapses (axonal connections) form the brains circuits and lay
foundation for further growth and differentiation

Biological Perspectives (contd.)

By the 5th month of prenatal development, most axons have
reached their general destination, but there are far more
axons than the target cells can accommodate
During early childhood, selective pruning reduces the number
of connections that shape and differentiate important brain
functions
Throughout life, we undergo cycles that narrow the gap
between structure and function
The microanatomy of the brain is constantly redefined to meet the
demands and requirements of an adult world

Scientists now believe that brain functions undergo continual

changes as they adapt to environmental demands

Neural Plasticity and the Role of

Experience
The brain shows neural plasticity (i.e., malleability, or usedependent anatomical differentiation) throughout the course of
development
Experience plays a critical role in brain development, with
transaction occurring between ongoing brain development and
environmental experiences
Prenatal environment
Childhood illness and diet
Early caregiving, including maltreatment, inadequate stimulation, and
attachment

Neural Plasticity and the Role of

Experience (contd.)
Maturation of the brain is an organized, hierarchical process
with brain structures restructuring and growing throughout the
life span
Primitive areas, which govern basic sensory and motor skills, mature
during the first 3 years of life
Perceptual and instinctive centers (e.g. limbic system) are strongly
affected by early childhood experiences
Prefrontal cortex and cerebellum are not rewired until a person is 5 to 7
years old
Major restructuring occurs between ages 9 and 11 due to pubertal
development and again in adolescence

Neural Plasticity and the Role of

Experience (contd.)
As the brain is shaped by early experiences, consequences of
traumatic experience may be difficult to change
Problems or disruptions occurring at a younger age are typically
associated with more severe organic disorders and central nervous
system complications
Safeguards such as proper prenatal care, proper nutrition, and
avoidance of tobacco or alcohol during pregnancy are important in
reducing the risk of complications and lifelong disabilities

Genetic Contributions
Each persons unique genome (approximately 20,000 to
25,000 genes) is established at conception
Genes contain genetic information from each parent
distributed on 22 matched pairs of chromosomes and a single
pair of sex chromosomes (XY=male, XX=female)
Some genetic influences are expressed early in development,
while others show up years later
Expression of genetic influences is malleable and responsive
to social environment
Rarely is one gene the single cause of a disorder

Genetic Contributions (contd.)

The nature of genes
A gene is a stretch of DNA, which produces a protein
Proteins produce tendencies to respond to the environment in certain
ways
Genes influence how we respond to the environment, and the
environment influences our genes
Gene-environment interaction (GE)

Behavioral genetics investigates possible connections between

genetic predisposition and observed behavior, taking into
account environmental and genetic influences
Twin studies can provide a powerful research strategy for examining
the role of genetic influences in disorders

Genetic Contributions (contd.)

Molecular genetics methods directly assess the association
between variations in DNA sequences and variations in a
particular trait or traits
Used to identifying specific genes for a childhood disorders, including
autism, ADHD, and learning disability
Long-term goal is to determine how genetic mutations alter how genes
function in the development of the brain and behavior for different
psychopathologies
Addresses only a small part of genetic risk
Genetic influences are probabilistic, not deterministic
Most forms of abnormal behavior are polygenic: many susceptibility
genes interacting with each other and with environmental influences

Theories and
Causes II
Chapter 2 II

Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition

2009 Cengage Learning

Neurobiological Contributions

Neurobiological Contributions
(contd.)
Brain structure and function:
Brain stem handles most of the autonomic functions necessary to stay
alive
Hindbrain: medulla, pons, and cerebellum
Provides regulation of autonomic activities
Midbrain:
Coordinates movement with sensory input; contains reticular
activating system (RAS)
Diencephalon: thalamus and hypothalamus
Regulate behavior and emotion
Functions primarily as a relay between the forebrain and the lower
areas of brain stem

Neurobiological Contributions
(contd.)

Neurobiological Contributions
(contd.)
Brain structure and function (contd.)
The forebrain has evolved into highly specialized functions for humans
Limbic system: regulates emotional experiences and expressions and
plays a significant role in learning and impulse control
Regulates basic drives of sex, aggression, hunger, and thirst
Basal ganglia: regulates, organizes, and filters information related to
cognition, emotions, mood and motor function
Associated with ADHD, motor behaviors (e.g., tics and tremors), and
OCD

Neurobiological Contributions
(contd.)

Neurobiological Contributions
(contd.)
Forebrain (contd.)
Cerebral cortex: largest part of the forebrain
Allows us to plan, reason, and create
Divided into left hemisphere (verbal and other cognitive processes)
and right hemisphere (social perception and creativity)
Researchers believe that each hemisphere plays a different role in
certain psychological disorders

New growth and restructuring during adolescence and early

adulthood results in further maturation of lobes of the brain
(temporal, parietal, and frontal lobes)
Frontal lobes important for thinking and reasoning abilities
Frontal lobe functions help us make sense of social relationships and
customs

Neurobiological Contributions
(contd.)

Neurobiological Contributions
(contd.)
The endocrine system is an important regulatory system that
has been linked to anxiety and mood disorders
Endocrine glands produce hormones
Adrenal glands produce epinephrine and cortisol
Response to stress
Thyroid gland produces thyroxine
Implicated in certain eating disorders
Pituitary gland produces regulatory hormones like estrogen and
testosterone
Implicated in a variety of disorders
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has been implicated in
several disorders, especially anxiety and mood disorders

Neurobiological Contributions
(contd.)
Neurotransmitters make biochemical connections between
different parts of the brain
Neurons more sensitive to a particular neurotransmitter, such as
serotonin, cluster together and form brain circuits (paths from one part
of the brain to another)
Neurotransmitters most commonly implicated in psychopathology
include serotonin, benzodiazepine-GABA, norepinephrine, and dopamine
Psychoactive drugs work by either increasing or decreasing the flow of
various neurotransmitters

Neurobiological Contributions
(contd.)

Psychological Perspectives
Psychological perspectives have value in explaining the
development of psychopathology, but also have certain
limitations
Role of emotions in establishing an infants ability to adapt to new
surroundings
Behavioral and cognitive processes play a large role in assisting young
child to make sense of the world

Emotional Influences
Emotions and affective expression
Are core elements of human psychological experience
Are a central feature of infant activity and regulation
Are us to danger/ensure our safety
Tell us what to pay attention to/what to ignore
Affect quality of social interactions and relationships
Are important for internal monitoring and guidance
Provide motivation for action
Are critical to healthy adaptation

Emotions are a primary form of communication for young

children, permitting them explore their world with increasing
independence

Emotional Influences
(contd.)
Emotion reactivity and regulation
Emotion reactivity: individual differences in the threshold and intensity
of emotional experience
Emotion regulation: involves enhancing, maintaining, or inhibiting
emotional arousal
Problems in regulation: weak or absent control structures
Problems in dysregulation: existing control structures operate
maladaptively; may be adaptive in some situations and maladaptive
in others
Important signals of normal and abnormal development
Child-caregiver relationship plays a critical role (authoritative parents)

Emotional Influences
(contd.)
Temperament and early personality styles
Temperament: an organized style of behavior that appears early in
development and shapes an individuals approach to his or her
environment and vice versa
Early building block of personality
Three primary dimensions
Positive affect and approach
Fearful or inhibited
Negative affect or irritability
Empirical evidence links early behavioral styles to brain activity that
underlies a childs approach to novel situations

Emotional Influences
(contd.)
Temperament and early personality styles (contd.)
Early infant temperament may be linked to psychopathology or risk
conditions
Empirical evidence links early behavioral styles to adult personality
characteristics
A balance between emotional reactivity and self-control, known as selfregulation, is the best formula for healthy, normal adjustment

Behavioral and Cognitive Influences

Most behavioral explanations assume that the child is best
understood by behavior in a particular situation
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA):
Explains behavior as a function of its antecedents and consequences
(functional approach to behavior)
Four primary operant learning principles:
Positive and negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment

Classical conditioning:
Explains the acquisition of problem behavior in terms of paired
associations between previously neutral stimuli and unconditioned
stimuli

Behavioral and Cognitive Influences

(contd.)
Cognitive theorists focus on how thought patterns develop
over time, and how they relate to behavioral strategies
Social learning and cognition:
Social learning explanations consider not only overt behaviors, but also
the role of possible cognitive mediators
Observational learning
Social cognition relates to how children think about themselves and
others

Social learning and social-cognitive viewpoints consider the

role of affect, and contextual variables in the etiology and
maintenance of behaviors

Family, Social, and Cultural

Perspectives
Social and environmental contexts
Proximal (close by) and distal (further removed) events
Shared/nonshared environments
Shared environment: environmental factors that produce similarities in
developmental outcomes among siblings in the same family
Non-shared environment: environmental factors that produce
behavioral differences among siblings in the same family

Bronfenbrenners ecological model

Describes the childs environment as a series of nested and
interconnected structures with the child at the center

Family, Social, and Cultural

Perspectives (contd.)

Infant-Caregiver Attachment
Bowlby developed theory of attachment by integrating aspects
of evolutionary biology with psychodynamic conceptions of
early experiences
Attachment: The process of establishing and maintaining an
emotional bond with parents or other significant individuals
An ongoing process beginning between 6-12 months of age, providing
infants with a secure, consistent base

The evolving infant-caregiver relationship helps the infant to

regulate behavior and emotions, especially in conditions of
threat or stress
The childs internal working model of relationships comes from his or
her initial crucial relationship and is carried forward into later
relationships

Infant-Caregiver Attachment
(contd.)
Four patterns of attachment, which reflect different types of
internal working models, have been identified:
Secure
Insecure anxious-avoidant
Insecure anxious-resistant
Disorganized, disoriented (not an organized strategy)

Insecure attachments have been implicated in a number of

childhood disorders, but no one-to-one correspondence exists
between specific patterns of attachment and particular
disorders

Infant-Caregiver Attachment
(contd.)

The Family and Peer Context

Child psychopathology research has increasingly focused on
the role of:
The family system
The complex relationships within families
The reciprocal influences among various family subsystems

There is a need to consider the processes that occur within

disturbed families and how these processes affect individual
family members and subsystems
Subsystems receiving most attention involve roles of mother-child and
the marital couple
Less attention given to roles of siblings and fathers

The Family and Peer Context

(contd.)
Family systems theorists argue that understanding or
predicting the behavior of a particular family member cannot
be done in isolation from other family members.
The study of individual factors and the study of the childs
context are mutually compatible and beneficial to both theory
and intervention
How the family deals with typical and atypical stress is crucial
to childrens adjustment and adaptation
The outcome of stressful events depends on nature and severity of
stress, the level of family functioning prior to the stress, and the
familys coping skills and resources
Major family and individual issues disrupt, disturb, or interfere with
consistent and predictable child care and basic needs

Looking Ahead
Societys understanding of childrens healthy, normal
development has been gradually evolving toward a more
health-promoting orientation
Encourages changes, opportunities, and competence to achieve ones
health potential
This view recognizes:
The multicausal and interactive nature of many child and adolescent
psychological disorders
The importance of contextual factors
The importance of balancing the abilities of individuals with the
challenges and risks of their environments