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Gravity:

Gravity anomalies.
Earth gravitational field.

The basics

Newtons law of gravitation:

m1m2
F 2 ,
r

where:
F is the force of gravitation.
m1 and m2 are the masses.
r is the distance between the masses.
is the gravitational constant that is equal to 6.67x10-11 Nm2kg-2 (fortunately

is a small number).
Units of F are N=kg m s-2 .

The basics

Newtons second law of motion:

F ma,
where:
m is the mass.
a is acceleration.
By combining the universal
law of gravitation with Newtons second law of
motion, one finds that the acceleration of m2 due to its attraction by m1 is:

m1
a 2 .
r

The basics

Gravitational acceleration is thus:

where:
ME is the mass of the Earth.
RE is the Earths radius.

M E
g
2 ,
RE

Units of acceleration are m s-2, or gal=0.01 m s-2.

Question: Is earth gravitational field a constant?


Question: Is earth gravitational field greater at the poles or at the equator?

From the law of universal gravitation, the force on a body acted


upon by Earth's gravity is given by

where r is the distance between the centre of the Earth and the body (see below), and
here we take m1 to be the mass of the Earth and m2 to be the mass of the body.

Additionally, Newton's second law, F = ma, where m is mass


and a is acceleration, here tells us that
Comparing the two formulas it is seen that:

So, to find the acceleration due to gravity at sea level, substitute the
values of the gravitational constant, G, the Earth's mass (in
kilograms), m1, and the Earth's radius (in metres), r, to obtain the
value of g:

gravimeter

LaCoste-Romberg gravimetre
Worden gravimetre

Gravity Survey Types

SURVEY DESIGN

Factors affecting gravity


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Instrumental (spring) Drift


Location, hence Latitude of measurement
Elevation of the measuring plane
Tides
Masses between datum and measuring
plane
6. Terrain condition
7. Survey vehicle's speed and direction
Need to do some corrections of observed value
of g?

Correction
As is true of most all measurement of physical
properties, there are always effects that
change the measured values that we are NOT
interested in and that we desire to remove (or
correct for) as accurately as possible.
An important point is that we measure gravity
at whatever value our gravimeter reads, and
THEN we correct that data for these different
effects that we are not interested in.

CORRECTION
In the case of gravity , there are seven gravity
effects to correct for:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Drift correction
Latitude correction
Free-air correction
Tide correction
Bouguer correction
Terrain condition
Eotvos correction

1. Drift correction
The reading of a gravimeters at a
point changes with time!
Causes:
Instrument drift: due to
environmental changes (P,T) and
spring creep
Earth tides: relative rotations of
the earth, moon and sun
Correcting procedure:
1. Return to base station
periodically
2. Assume drift is linear
3. Correct measurements in loop

2. LATITUDINAL CORRECTIONS

1- It is caused by both rotation of the earth and its slight


equatorial bulge.
2- The maximum value occurs at latitude 45.
3- L.C. equal to zero at equator and pole.
4- The correction is added as we moved toward the equator.

2. Latitudinal corrections
Gravity varies from 9.78 m/s2 at the equator (lat=0) to 9.83 m/s2 at the poles (lat:
north = +90; south = -90). This is a huge change: a 0.052 m/s2 variation equals
5200 mgals! This is much larger than other gravitational effects. The gravity varies
with latitude for two reasons:

The Earth is not a sphere, but a flattened spheroid with an equatorial radius of
6,378 km and a polar radius of 6,356 km (21 km different). Thus, the gravity is
LESS at the equator because it is FARTHER AWAY from the Earths center of mass.

The Earth is a non-inertial reference frame because it is a rotating body that


spins once per day. At the equator any object has a rotational velocity of 465
m/s, whereas at the poles the rotational velocity is zero! Physics requires that a
rotational reference frame has non-inertial (fictitious) forces such as the outward
directed centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is the force that any mass
rotating with the planet feels in response to the centripetal force that the
planets gravity field provides to continually curve an objects path on the earth
intoa circular path. Recall Newtons first law says that all masses go in a straight
line in a INTERTIAL reference frame unless acted on by an unbalanced force (it is
gravity that provides the unbalanced force as a centripetal acceleration).

g ( ) 1 (1 2 sin 2 3 sin 2 2 ), 1 9.78031, 2 5.3024e 3 , 3 5.900e 6 .


The International gravity formula that describes latitudinal () gravity variations
in m/s2 units is:
An approximate latitudinal equation when survey is
small.

3. Free-air correction

To apply an elevation correction to our observed gravity, we need to know the


elevation of every gravity station. If this is known, we can correct all of the
observed gravity readings to a common elevation (usually chosen to be sea
level) by adding -0.3086 times the elevation of the station in meters to each
reading. Given the relatively large size of the expected corrections, how
accurately do we actually need to know the station elevations?
If we require a precision of 0.01 mgals, then relative station elevations need to
be known to about 3 cm. To get such a precision requires very careful location
surveying to be done. In fact, one of the primary costs of a high-precision
gravity survey is in obtaining the relative elevations needed to compute the
Free-Air correction.
a- It is a correction for change in elevation.
b- F.A. is calculated by
F. A. = 0.3086 x h mgal/m
c- The F.A.C. is added to the field reading
when the station is above the datum and
subtracted when below.

4. Tide correction
1- It is the change of gravity due to movement of the sun and
moon.
2- These variation has amplitude as large as 0.3 mgal.
3- The amplitude depend on latitude and time.

5. Bouguer correction
1- It is account for attraction of materials between the
stations and the datum plane.
2- We have to consider that the stations are located on
a plateau of horizontal extent has uniform thickness
and density.
3- B.C. is calculated by
B.C. = 0.04191 ph mgal
4- B.C. is applied in the opposite sense to F.A.C. , it is
subtracted when the stations are above the datum and
vice versa.

5. Bouguer correction
Also notice

that to
apply the Bouguer
Slab correction we
need to know the
elevations of all of
the
observation
points
and
the
density of the slab
used to approximate
the excess mass. In
choosing a density,
use
an
average
density for the rocks
in the survey area.
For a density of 2.67
gm=cm3,
the
Bouguer
Slab
Correction is about
0:11 mgals=m.

6. Terrain correction

1- It is applied only in mountainous area.

2- The reading is applied to surface irregularity in the vicinity of the


station.
3- The measurements decreases in both cases :
a- Upward attraction due to hill.
b- Downward attraction due to valleys.
4- The terrain correction is always added.

Like Bouguer Slab Corrections, when computing Terrain Corrections we


need to assume an average density for the rocks exposed by the
surrounding topography. Usually, the same density is used for the
Bouguer and the Terrain Corrections. Thus far, it appears as though
applying Terrain Corrections may be no more difficult than applying the
Bouguer Slab Corrections. Unfortunately, this is not the case.

7. Eotvos correction
For a gravimetre mounted on a vehicle, such as a ship or a helicopter, the
measured gravitational acceleration is affected by the vertical component
of the Coriolis acceleration which is function of the speed and the
direction in which the vehicle is travelling.
To compensate for this, gravity data are adjusted by applying the Eotvos
correction (named after Baron von Eotvos).
gEC= 75.08 cos sin + 0.0416 V2 (g. u.)
Where, is the degree of geographical latitude,
is the azimuth in degrees,
and V is the speed of the vehicle in knots per hour.

Correction All together


Adding or subtracting the gravity corrections: It is very important to keep
physical track of the sign of the corrections; if you do not, you will get the
wrong answer. Remember, we are correcting the measured gravity data
to remove unwanted effects.
The free-air effect is added if you are above sea-level and is subtracted
if you are below sea-level.
The Bouguer effect is subtracted if you are above sea-level (+h) and
added if you are below sea-level (-h).
Total Bouguer correction : Bouguer = observed latitude +/- free-air +/Bouguer
Total correct to Free-air:
Free-air = observed latitude +/- free-air
The sign of the free-air and Bouguer correction depends on whether the
Bouguer Gravity:
corrections
to observed
gravity
data is often called Bougur
measurements
was (after
madeallabove
or below
ones
datum.
gravity)

Bouguer anomaly can be obtained by:

Regional and residual


that there are anomalies
three different

Note
structures
- dyke, granite, dipping
strata - associated with mass anomalies
that create different gravitational effects.

Often, we surveying at a small scale


(e.g., for the dyke and granite bodies),
we are NOT interested in the larger scale
regional gravity effects (e.g., the
dipping strata).
Thus,
we
reduce
the
data
by
subtracting an eyeball estimate of the
regional gravity trend The dotted lines
show two possible regional trends.
After subtracting the regional gravity
trends, we can more easily see the short
scale
residual
features
we
are

Separating Local and Regional Gravity


Anomalies

Interpretation
Duly
corrected
observed
gravity
data
can
be
interpreted in two different
way:
1.Direct interpretation of
the observed data
2.Indirect
or
inverse
(model
based)
interpretation
Selection of interpretation
techniques depends on the
project objectives.

Different bodies giving


identical anomalies.

Uses
Depth estimates
Mass determination
Identification of geological structure
Mineral exploration
Basin configuration
Detection of underground cavities
Volcanic hazards
Basement configuration and nature etc.

Gravity
anomalies
over given
geometric
forms

Modelling a basin

To model irregular shapes like a basin, a


set of rectangular mass anomalies can be
used to approximate the geometry of the
basin. Then, the total gravity effect of the
basin is found by adding up all the gravity
from the rectangles.

What this
map tells
us?

Why gravity
is changing
on a
temporal
basis?

END

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