Shafts, Belts,

Chains, & Clutches

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Shafts Definition
Generally shafts are members which rotate
in order to transmit power or motion. They
are usually circular in cross section, and
thats the type we will analyze.
Shafts do not always rotate themselves, as in
the case of an axle but axles support
rotating members.

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Three Common Shafts

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Elements Attached
to a Shaft

Shoulders provide axial positioning location, & allow

for larger center shaft diameter where bending
stress is highest.
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Common Shaft Materials

Typically shafts are machined or cold-drawn
from plain hot-rolled carbon steel.
Applications requiring greater strength often
specify alloy steels (e.g., 4140).
Some corrosion applications call for brass,
stainless, Ti, or others.
Aluminum is not commonly used (low
modulus, low surface hardness).
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Shafts for Steady Torsion

Often the rotating mass & static load on a
shaft are neglected, and the shaft is sized
simply to accommodate the transmitted
power. In such cases, the engineer typically
seeks to limit the maximum shear stress max
to some value under the yield stress in shear
(Sys), or to limit the twist angle .
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Shafts in Steady Torsion

Chapter 1 review equations:
kW = FV/1000 = Tn/9600
hp = FV/745.7 = Tn/7121
kW = kilowatts of power
F = tangential force (N)
V = tangential velocity (m/s)
T = torque (N x m)
n = shaft speed (rpm)
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(1.15)
(1.16)

SBS Power Units

Chapter 1 review equation:
hp = FV/33,000 = Tn/63,000
where,
hp = horsepower
F = tangential force (lb.)
V = tangential velocity (ft/min)
T = torque (lb - in.)
n = shaft speed (rpm)
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(1.17)

Steady State Shaft Design

Because shafts are in torsion, the shear stress is
generally the limiting factor. Recall that

max = Tc/J
where c = radius, and, for a circular shaft,
J = d4/32
As always, use a safety factor of n to arrive at

all = max /n
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Limiting the Twist Angle

In some cases it is desired to limit the twist
angle to a certain value. Recall from
Chapter 4:

= TL/GJ

(4.9)

L = length
G = shear modulus
is always in radians (deg. x /180)
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Example 9.1
Design a solid shaft to transmit 500 kW at n =
1200 rpm.
Sys = 300 MPa, and G = 80 GPa. Choose n =
1.5, and limit to < 4o along the 2m

length of the shaft.

Remember, n = rpm, while n = safety
factor. must be in radians in eq. 4.9.
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Combined Static Loads

In the preceding example, we considered
only the torsional load. Often the shaft
loading is more complicated, and both
bending and axial loads must be considered
as well. Review from Chapter 3:

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Combined Static Load

The axial stress is given by:

x = Mc/I + P/A = 32M/ D3 + 4P/ D2

(M = bending moment, P = axial load)

The torsional stress is given by:

xy = Tc/J = 16T/ D3
(T = Torque, J = polar moment of inertia, c = radius)

(For circular cross sections.)

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Maximum Shear Stress Theory

Typically the axial load P is small compared
to the bending moment M and the torque T,
and so it is neglected. (Notice how shear is
completely omitted.)
Recall the maximum shear stress criterion
from the Sept. 26th lecture:
Sy/n = (x2 + 4 xy 2)1/2
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(eq. 7.11)

Maximum Shear Stress Theory

Substitute the previous values for x and xy
into eq. 7.11 to obtain:
Sy/n = (32/ D3)[M2 + T2]1/2
This equation, or the related eq. for the
maximum energy of distortion theory, is
useful for finding either D or n.
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Fluctuating Loads
In their support of rotating members, most
shafts are subject to fluctuating loads,
possibly including a shock component as
well. Weve covered fatigue & impact in
previous lectures, and that material is
directly applied to the design of shafts.

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Example 9.2
Find required dia. of
shaft using MDET &
Soderberg fatigue
relation. Surface is
ground. Su = 810
MPa, and Sy = 605
MPa. Torque varies
by +/- 10%. The
fatigue stress []
factor Kf = 1.4.
Temp = 500 oC, and
n = 2. Survival rate
= 50%.
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Shock Factors
In shaft design, shock loading is typically
accounted for by yet more fudge factors, K sb
(bending shock) and Kst (torsional shock).
The values of these factors range from 1.0
to 2.0. The shock factors are applied to
their respective stress components.

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Critical Speeds of Shafts

All structures exhibit one or more natural, or
resonant frequencies. When a shaft rotates
at speeds equal or close to the natural
frequencies, resonance may occur. This is
usually to be avoided, although some
designs feature resonance.
Generally the designer tries to keep the
speed at least 25% lower than o. But in
some cases, the operating speed is higher.
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The Rayleigh Equation

ncr = (1/2)[ (gW)/(W2)]1/2

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Example 9.4
d = 30mm, D = 50mm, E = 210 Gpa. Find
ncr

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Shaft Attachments
Many different methods, each with pros and
cons of both function, ease of use, and cost:
the designer must balance between these
factors.
Some methods are very weak compared to
the shaft (e.g., a set screw), others are
stronger than the shaft itself.
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Shaft
Attachments:
Keys
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Shaft Attachments: Pins

Straight

Tapered

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Roll

Shaft Attachments:
Tapered Clamps

www.ringfeder.com
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Stresses in Keys
Distribution of force is
quite complicated. The
common assumption is
that the torque T is
carried by a tangential
force F acting on radius
r:
T = Fr
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Stresses in Keys
From T = Fr, both shear and compressive
bearing stresses may be calculated from the
width and length of the key.
The safety factor ranges from n = 2
(ordinary service) to n = 4.5 (shock).
The stress concentration factor in the
keyway ranges from 2 to 4.
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Problem 9.20
A 3/8 x 3/8 x 3 long key
holds a 3 long hub onto a
1 dia. shaft. The key
and the shaft both have an
allowable stress of 10 ksi.
What is the factor of
safety against shear failure
if the transmitted torque is
3.5 kip-in.?
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Splines
Splines permit axial motion between matching
parts, but transmit torque. Common use is
automotive driveshafts check your R/C car.

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Couplings
In many designs involving shafts, two shafts
must be connected co-axially. Couplings are
used to make these connections.
Couplings are either rigid or flexible. Rigid
couplings require very close alignment of the
shafts, generally better than .001 per inch of
separation.
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Rigid Couplings Sleeves

The simplest type of coupling is the simple
sleeve coupling. But this also has the lowest
torque capacity.

http://www.grainger.com/Grainger/wwg/start.shtml

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Rigid Couplings - Flanged

Great web resource:

http://www.powertransmission.com/pages/couplings.htm
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Flexible Couplings
There are many types of flexible couplings
as well. Generally something flexible is
sandwiched in between, or connected to,
rigid flanges attached to each shaft.
Alignment is still important! Reaction
forces increase with misalignment, and
often bearings are not sized
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Two-piece Donut (or

toroidal) flexible
coupling

http://viva.rexnord.com/content/features.html
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Universal Joints
U-joints are considered linkages rather than
couplings, but serve the same purpose of
transmitting rotation.
Very large angular displacements may be
accommodated.
Single joints are not constant-velocity.
Almost always, two joints are used. The
angles must be equal for uniform velocity.
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Shafts parallel
but offset

Shafts not
parallel but
intersecting

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Its Not Nanotechnology,

But You Could Get Rich!
Despite decades of research and 1000s of
Ph.D. theses, even highly engineered
shafts fail all too frequently. Even NASA
cant always get it right.
Often the connections are to blame: keys,
splines, couplings, and so on. Often fatigue
wear failure is the culprit.
The world may beat a path to your door!
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Belts, Chains,
Clutches, and Brakes
(or, Friction isYour Friend)

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Purchased vs. Designed

Components
We went into shafts in some detail because
shafts tend to be custom-designed for each
application.
Often the components that the engineer puts
onto the shaft, however, are purchased.
These components can be analyzed as much
as one likes, but its usually best to work
with the manufacturers application data.
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Belts and Chains

Economical alternatives to gears for
transmitting rotary motion between shafts.
Can be lighter, smaller, and as efficient as
gears.
However, usually the life is more limited.
Bicycle gears (chain drive) versus
automotive gears.
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Timing Belts
Toothed or synchronous belts dont slip,
and therefore transmit torque at a constant
ratio: great for applications requiring
precise timing, such as driving an
automotive camshaft from the crankshaft.
Very efficient. More $ than other types of
belts.
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Timing Belts

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Flat, Round, and V Belts

Flat and round belts work very well. Flat
belts must work under higher tension than V
belts to transmit the same torque as V belts.
Therefore they require more rigid shafts,
larger bearings, and so on.
V belts create greater friction by wedging
into the groove on the pulley or sheave.
This greater friction = great torque capacity.
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V Belt & Sheave

Cross Section

The included
angle 2 ranges
between 34o
and 40o.
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V Belt Cross Sections (U.S.)

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Flat Belts vs. V Belts

Flat belt drives can have an efficiency close
to 98%, about the same as a gear drive.
V belt drive efficiency varies between 70%
and 96%, but they can transmit more power
for a similar size. (Think of the wedged belt
having to come un-wedged.)
In low power applications (most industrial
uses), the cheaper installed cost wins vs. their
greater efficiency: V belts are very common.
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Flat Belt Drive Example

Chapter 13, Problem 1
A flat belt 4 in. wide and in. thick operates on pulleys
of diameters 5 in. and 15 in. and transmits 10 hp.
Determine:
(a) The required belt tensions.
(b) The belt length.
Given: the speed of the small pulley is 1500 rpm, the
pulleys are 5 ft apart, the coefficient of friction is 0.30,
and the weight of the belt material is 0.04 lb/in.3.
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Flat Belt Drive Example

T = (F1 F2)r
(eq. 13.1)
hp = (F1 F2)V/33,000 = Tn/63,000 (eq. 13.3)
sin = (r2 r1)/c
(eq. 13.6)
=2
(eq. 13.7)
Fc = (w/g)V2
(eq. 13.13)
F1 = Fc + [ /(-1)](T1/r1) (eq. 13.20)
= ef/sin
(eq. 13.21)
(Where = 90o for a flat belt)
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Flat Belt Drive Example

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Chains
Compared to belts, chains can transmit
more power for a given size, and can
maintain more precise speed ratios.
Like belts, chains may suffer from a shorter
life than a gear drive. Flexibility is limited
by the link-length, which can cause a nonuniform output at high speeds.
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Chains
Chain drives can be very efficient. Bicycle
example.
The fact that the user controls the length
(with master links) is a plus. However, the
sprockets wear out much more frequently
than does a belt sheave. Take your pick!

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Chain Nomenclature

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View with
side plates
omitted

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Chain Sizes (U.S.)

The chain number is nominally the rollerto-roller pitch in 1/80 inch increments.
Size 40 chain = pitch ~ bike chain.
Size 80 chain = 1 pitch.
Size 120 chain = 1 pitch.

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Clutches & Brakes

Both use friction to control rotational
power.
Clutches are used to couple & decouple
rotating members; typically a power source
from the rest of a machine. Auto example.
Brakes are used to dissipate rotational
energy.
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Friction Materials
Clutches and brakes depend on friction to
operate. Typically one surface is metal,
either steel or cast iron. The other surface is
usually of a composite nature, for example
soft metal particles embedded with
reinforcing fibers in a bonding matrix.
Conflicting requirements of minimal wear,
but acceptable f.
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Single Plate Disc Clutch

(for yoke shifter)

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Hydraulically Actuated Multiple

Plate Clutch, Wet or Dry

Whats wrong with this picture?

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Wet Clutches
Why on earth would an engineer design a
clutch where the plates operate in an oil
bath? Isnt friction the idea?
Cooling, smooth operation (no grabbing,
and reduced wear, thats why.
True that f is reduced and so sizes must be
increased but a worthwhile tradeoff.
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Cone Clutches & Brakes

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Simple Band Brake

Very similar to a belt
drive; torque capacity
is T = (F1 F2)r
Equations 13.42
through 13.45 in text

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Differential Band Brake

The friction force helps
to apply the band:
therefore it is selfenergizing.
Can become selflocking:
Fa = (1/a)(cF2 sF1)
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Short-Shoe Drum Brakes

If the shoe is short
(less than 45o contact
angle), a uniform
pressure distribution
may be assumed
which simplifies the
analysis in
comparison to longshoe brakes.
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Self-Energizing &
Self-Locking Brakes
If the rotation is as
shown, then
Fa = (Fn/a)(b fc).
If b <= fc, then the
brake is self-locking.
Think of a door stop,
that is a self-locking
short shoe brake.
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Long-Shoe Drum Brakes

Cannot assume
uniform pressure
distribution, so the
analysis is more
involved.

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Internal Long-Shoe
Drum Brakes
Formerly in wide
automotive use; being
replaced by caliper disc
brakes, which offer
better cooling capacity
(and many other
advantages).
How many HP can a set
of brakes dissipate?
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Chapter 13, Problem 19

The band brake shown in Figure P13.18 has a power
capacity of 40 kW at 600 rpm. Determine the belt
tensions.
Given: = 250, r = 250 mm,
a = 500 mm, and f = 0.4.

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Chapter 13, Problem 19

Torque T = (9549 x kW)/n
= (9549 x 40)/600 = 636.6 N-m (eq. 1.15)
F1 = F2e f,
(eq. 13.44)
where is in radians, so
F1 = F2e (.4)(4.363) = 5.727F2
T = (F1 F2)r

(eq. 13.42),

Or, T = (.25)(5.727F2 F2) = 1.182F2

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Chapter 13, Problem 19

Therefore, F2 = 538.6 N, and,
F1 = 3,085 N

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