How do cells reproduce?

Cell Life Cycle

Most of a cells life is spent in a nondividing
state (interphase)

Body (somatic) cells divide in 3 stages:

DNA replication duplicates genetic material exactly
Mitosis divides genetic material equally
Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm and organelles into 2
daughter cells
Figure 33
 Interphase
The nondividing period:
G-zero phase
specialized cell functions
only
G1 phasecell growth,
organelle duplication,
protein synthesis
S phaseDNA
replication and histone
synthesis
G2 phasefinishes
protein synthesis and
centriole replication
 DNA Replication
DNA strands unwind
DNA polymerase attaches complementary
nucleotides

Figure 324
Somatic Cell Nuclear Division
Two important processes to
maintain constant number of
chromosomes.
Duplication of chromosomes
Distribution of duplicated chromosomes
into two daughter cells
 1

2 3 5

The Human
6 7 8
9

1 0
1 1

1 2

Karyotype

1 7

1 5 1 6 1 8

1 4

1 3

1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2

X Y
 Importance
Importance of
of Mitosis
Mitosis
2N or Diploid Number
in Humans
46
46
Mother Cell 46
Daughter Cells
 Importance
Importance of
of Mitosis
Mitosis (cont.)
(cont.)
a. Cellular replacement
b. Tissue Repair
c. Development
d. Tumor growth
Cell
Cell cycle
cycle prior
prior to
to mitosis:
mitosis:
Interphase: nondividing state but cell is
metabolically active.
nucleus clearly visible
one or more nucleoli-nucleolar organizer
regions of chromosomes.
chromosomes long and thin
centriole (animal cells only) located along
margin of nucleus
 Replication of DNA and duplication
of chromosomes occurs in the cell
cycle.
Chromatids

Centromere
Prophase:
prepares the cell for division
chromosomes shorten and thicken
centriole divides into two entities which
migrate down sides of nuclear
envelope, spindle fibers stretch
between centrioles
Prophase: The cell is prepared for
nuclear division
Nuclear envelope has disappeared

Spindle has formed

Chromosomes short and thick

Metaphase: final preparation for
nuclear division
chromosomes line up on equatorial
plate of division
centromeres of chromosomes attached
by kinetocores (protein) to spindle fibers,
microtubules made up of tubulin
 A single chromosome
attached to spindle fibers
 Anaphase: chromosome
halves migrate to poles
centromeres divide
chromosome halves migrate to opposite
poles of cell
chromosomes migrate by sliding of
microtubules
Telophase:
reverse of activities of prophase
chromosomes reach poles of cell
spindle fibers degraded
nuclear membrane reassembled
chromosomes elongate
nucleoli reassembled
 Cytokinesis - division of the cell
Cytokinesis occurs by constriction of actin
fibers forming a belt around cell in animal cells
Plant cells form a cell plate from nuclear
membrane and then cellulose is added to the
plate.
 Animal cell - cytokinesis occurs by
constriction of actin fibers

Plant cell - cytokinesis

occurs by synthesis of
cell plate.
Typical Timing of Mitosis
 What regulates cell division?
Mitotic Rate and Energy
Rate of cell division:
slower mitotic rate means longer cell life
cell division requires energy (ATP)

Long Life, Short Life

Muscle cells, neurons rarely divide
Exposed cells (skin and digestive tract)
live only days or hours
Chemicals Controlling Cell Division

Table 34
 Regulating Cell Life
Normally, cell division balances cell loss
Factors Increase Cell Division
Increases cell division:
internal factors (Maturation Promoting Factor)
extracellular chemical factors (growth factors)

Factors Decrease Cell Division

Decreases cell division:
repressor genes (faulty repressors cause cancers)
worn out telomeres (terminal DNA segments)
 Cancer

Cancer illness that disrupts cellular controls and

Oncogenes: mutated genes that cause cancer
produces malignant cells
Cancer Stages - develops in steps:
abnormal cell
primary tumor
metastasis
secondary tumor Figure 326
 Cell Division and Tumors
Tumor (neoplasm):
enlarged mass of cells
abnormal cell growth and division
Benign Tumors
Benign tumor:
contained
not life threatening

Malignant Tumors
Malignant tumor:
spread into surrounding tissues (invasion)
start new tumors (metastasis)
 KEY CONCEPT
Mutations disrupt normal controls over cell
growth and division
Cancers often begin where stem cells are
dividing rapidly
More chromosome copies mean greater
chance of error
 What makes cells different?
Cell Diversity
All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all
body functions
Cells specialize or differentiate:
to form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons)
by turning off all genes not needed by that cell
All body cells, except sex cells, contain the
same 46 chromosomes
Differentiation depends on which genes are
active and which are inactive