Chapter 2

Measurement and Calculations

Handling Extreme Numbers
There are 6,000,000,000 (6 billion) people in the world

Lets say each person makes $10,000 in a year

How much money does the world make in a year?

6,000,000,000 x $10,000 = $60,000,000,000,000

This is a lot of zeros

We need a way to make this number easier to use

Handling Extreme Numbers
The world makes $60,000,000,000,000

but we (as students) made just $200 last year

Out of all the money people in the world make, what fraction
did we make?

$200 = 1
$60,000,000,000,000 300,000,000,000

= 0.00000000000333

We need a way to make this number easier to use

What is Scientific
Notation?

shorthand for really big

and really small numbers
 Scientific Notation
Scientific Notation allows you to express extreme numbers in
terms of exponentials. An exponential is a number multiplied by
itself a certain number of times.

Examples

43 = 4 x 4 x 4 = 64

106 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 1,000,000

Scientific notation uses only exponentials of 10

 Math Review
100 = 1
101 = 1 x 10 = 10
102 = 1 x 10 x 10 = 100
103 = 1 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000

10-1 = 1 = 0.1
10

10-2 = 1 = 0.01
10 x 10

10-3 = 1 = 0.001
10 x 10 x10
 Using Scientific Notation

Values are expressed as a number in decimal form,

where 1 n < 10 multiplied by 10 raised to a power.

$60,000,000,000,000 = $6 x 1013

32,700 = 3.27 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 3.27 x 104 = 32,700

6.48 x 102 = 648

2.54 x 1017 = 254,000,000,000,000,000

 Negative Exponents
When the exponent on the 10 is negative, it means you are
dividing by that power of ten. Therefore, to express the
number in scientific notation in standard form, you move the
decimal to the left.

5.21 x 10-2 = 5.21 = 0.0521

10 x 10

3.33 x 10-12 = 0.00000000000333

1.44 x 103 = 0.00144

7.888 x 108 = 0.0000000788

Exponential Notation in Steps
Step 1. Beginning with the first nonzero digit, rewrite the
number, placing the decimal after the first digit, then write x 10
0.0101 becomes 1.01 x 10
Step 2. Count the number of decimal places a decimal in the
original number moved to its new place and write that number as
the exponent of 10
1.01 x 10 becomes 1.01 x 102
Step 3. If the original number (0.0101) is smaller than the new
number (1.01), then the exponent has a minus sign in front.
1.01 x 102 becomes 1.01 x 10-2
0.0101 = 1.01 x 10-2
 Application
From our previous calculations,
6,000,000,000 x $10,000 = $60,000,000,000,000
In scientific notation, this can be expressed as
(6 x 109 ) x ($1 x 104 ) = $6 x 1013

We will be using numbers like

602,300,000,000,000,000,000,000
 Scientific Notation: More Applications

US population in 2004:
293,168,000 people = 2.93168 x 108 people
Federal debt in 2004:
$7,132,000,000,000
Diameter of red blood cell:
0.000007 m = 7 x 10-6 m

0.000000459

1,254,600,000

458,000,210

0.0000456000001

* leading number is between 1 and 10

Exp. Not. and Your Calculator

To put an exponential number in your calculator, follow the

examples below:

To enter 7.35 x 105, press:

[7] [.] [3] [5] [EE] [5]

To enter 4.5 x 102, press:

[4] [.] [5] [EE] [+/-] [2]

(Note: if your calculator does not have the [EE] key,

use the [EXP] key)
Reading Your Calculator

To read an exponential off of your calculator,

follow these examples:

4.153 04 would be read as 4.153 x 104 or 41,530

8.1 02 would be read as 8.1 x 102 or 0.081

We will need to convert between normal notation

and scientific notation constantly
 Now Your Turn

Convert between normal notation and

scientific notation
Normal notation Scientific notation
67 students ???
??? 9.11 x 10-31 kg
$20,000,000 ???
??? 6.02 x 1023 molecules
 Metric System
Measurement Our System Metric System Conversion
Mass (weight) Pounds Kilograms 2.2 lb. = 1 kg
Length Inches Centimeters 1 inch = 2.54 cm
Volume Quarts Liters 1.1 qt = 1 L
Temperature Fahrenheit Celsius C = (F-32)/1.8

We will use the metric system for all our measurements,

but we are used to our system
Metric Measurement for Distance
Metric Measurement for Liquids
Metric Measurement for Volume
Metric Measurement for Mass
What is the difference between mass and weight?
Metric Measurement for Temperature
Celcius (Centigrade), C
 Metric Prefixes
Metric Metric
Prefixes Symbol Multiple Example
giga- G 109 1 Gm = 109 m
mega- M 106 1 Mm = 106 m
*kilo- k 103 1 km = 103 m
*centi- c 10-2 1 cm = 10-2 m
*milli- m 10-3 1 mm = 10-3 m
micro- 10-6 1 m = 10-6 m
nano- n 10-9 1 nm = 10-9 m
* memorize these
 Accuracy vs. Precision
Accuracy Precision
Agreement of a Indicates how well
measurement with several determinations of
the accepted value the same quantity agree

Are the above results accurate? Are they precise?

 Uncertainty in Measurements
Exact numbers
Measured Quantities:
Estimate the length of the wood piece
 Significant Figures
Significant figures include the digits that can be easily determined by the
measurement (certain) plus one estimated digit.

Digits can be exact and inexact.

Exact digits do not impact the total number of significant digits because they
are considered to have infinite significance.

Examples of exact digits are there are 12 eggs in 1 dozen or there are 100
cm in 1 m. All counted numbers or conversion factors that are considered to
be exact such as 1 in. = 2.54 cm are considered exact. Not all conversion
factors are exact.

Inexact digits are numbers that come from something that is measured. An
example is a piece of paper measures 22 cm across (1 digit plus one estimated
digit = 2 significant figures) but with a different ruler the piece of paper
measures 22.2 cm (3 digits plus one estimated digit = 3 significant figures).
The second measurement is more precise.
Which would give a more precise measurement of
volume: a beaker, a graduated cylinder or a buret?

Beaker Graduated Cylinder Buret

measured value 48 mL 36.5 mL 20.39 mL

 Which is more precise?

The Buret > Graduated Cylinder > Beaker

4 significant digits > 3 significant digits > 2 significant digits

 Rules for Working with Significant
Figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures:

All non-zero digits are significant: 5432

Leading zeros are never significant: 0.0021

Imbedded zeros are always significant: 1001
Trailing zeros are significant only if the decimal
point is specified: 11.10

Hint: Change the number to scientific

notation. It is easier to see.
 Counting Significant Figures

Underline the uncertain or estimated digit

64 2 sig. figs.
64.3 3 sig. figs.
64.25 4 sig. figs.
Counting Significant Figures
147.7 lbs 4 sig. figs.
45.872 g 5 sig. figs.
1.080 m 4 sig. figs.
3.00 L 3 sig. figs.
2.7 x 103 kg 2 sig. figs.
7.007 nm 4 sig. figs.
 Counting Significant Figures
The Zero

Significant Figures
1.05 3
4.0208 5
0.0110 3
5.10 3
0.00005 1
0.0000502 3
0.00005020 4
3.50 x 102 3
350 2
 Multiplying & Dividing

The result is limited by the factor with the least number of sig. figs.

1. 5.02 * 89.665 * 0.10 = 45.0118 45

(3 sig. figs)*(5 sig. figs)*(2 sig. figs

2. 5.892/6.10 = 0.96590 0.966

(4 sig. figs.)/(3 sig. figs.)
 Adding and Subtracting
Significant Figures

The result is limited by the value with the most uncertainty or the least
number of decimal places. Focus on decimal place!

5.74 4.8

0.823 - 3.965

+ 2.651 0.835 = 0.8

9.214 = 9.21
Combinations and Sig Figs
4435.2 + 32.294 =
0.019

Do the addition first (rules from algebra)

4435.2
+ 32.294
4467.494 calculator answer
4467.5 answer w/ correct # of sig figs

4467.5 5 sig figs

0.019 2 sig figs

235131 calculator answer

240000 answer w/ correct # of sig figs
 Practice with Sig Figs

85.5 - 101.453 =
150

85.5
-101.453
-15.953 calc. ans.
-16.0 ans. w/ correct # sig figs

-16.0 = -0.106666 calc. ans.

150 -0.11 ans. w/ correct # sig figs
 Dimensional Analysis
(Converting Units)
We have 24 eggs. How many dozen eggs is this?
Our experiment takes 2 hours. How many
minutes is this?
A yard is 3 feet long. How many inches is this?
How many centimeters long is the 100 meter
dash?
 Converting Units
1. Write down your conversion factor
12 eggs = 1 dozen eggs
This can also be written as
12 eggs or 1 dozen eggs
1 dozen eggs 12 eggs
2. Multiply by the conversion factor where the wanted unit is
on the top (numerator)
Given unit wanted unit = wanted unit
given unit

24 eggs 1 dozen eggs = 2 dozen eggs

12 eggs

Make sure to include the units!!!

 What Happens If I Mess Up?
The units will help you!!!
Lets say you put down the wrong conversion
factor

24 eggs 12 eggs = 288 eggs2 / doz eggs

1 dozen eggs
Notice that none of the units cancel out
 Another Example
Convert 2 hours to the correct number of minutes

The conversion factor is 1 hour = 60 minutes

which can also be written 1 hour or 60 minutes
60 minutes 1 hour

Multiply by the conversion factor where the wanted unit is

on the top

2 hours 60 minutes = 120 minutes

1 hour
 Last Two Examples
Convert 3 feet to inches (1 foot = 12 inches)

3 feet 12 inches = 36 inches

1 foot

Convert 100 meters to centimeters (1 meter = 100 cm)

100 m 100 cm = 10,000 cm = 1 x 104 cm

1 m
 Now Your Turn
Determine the conversion factors and do the following
conversions using dimensional analysis - let your
intuition help guide you
How many toes are there on 7 feet?
How many wheels do 3 cars have?
How many quarters can I get for a 5 dollar bill?
How many pounds are there in 48 ounces?
 But Why Do I Have to Use
Dimensional Analysis?
Just doing it in my head works well for small numbers and
units that we are used to, but not as well in science
A wavelength is said to be 350 nm. What is this distance in
meters? (1 nm = 1 x 10-9 m)
350 nm 1 x 10-9 m = 3.50 x 10-7 m = 0.000000350 m
1 nm

The mass of an electron is 9.11 x 10-31 kg. What is the mass of

3.21 x 109 electrons?
(3.21 x 109 electrons) (9.11 x 10-31 kg) = 2.92 x 10-21 kg
(1 electron)
 Dimensional Analysis
Review
1. Identify the conversion factor
2. Multiply by the conversion factor where the
wanted unit is on the top (numerator) and the
given unit is on the bottom (denominator)
3. Make sure the units cancel out
4. This is the eighth overhead for dimensional
analysis (hint - its very important)