Tissue Anatomy

and Physiology
 Tissue
Tissue is a group of cells that have similar
structure and that function together as a unit. A
nonliving material, called the intercellular matrix,
fills the spaces between the cells. This may be
abundant in some tissues and minimal in others.
The intercellular matrix may contain special
substances such as salts and fibers that are
unique to a specific tissue and gives that tissue
distinctive characteristics. There are four main
tissue types in the body: epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous. Each is designed for specific
functions.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They
form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities
and hollow organs, and are the major tissue in glands. They
perform a variety of functions that include protection,
secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and
sensory reception.
The cells in epithelial tissue are tightly packed together with
very little intercellular matrix. Because the tissues form
coverings and linings, the cells have one free surface that is
not in contact with other cells. Opposite the free surface,
the cells are attached to underlying connective tissue by a
non-cellular basement membrane. This membrane is a
mixture of carbohydrates and proteins secreted by the
epithelial and connective tissue cells.
Types of epithelium
Types of epithelium
Simple Epithelium: It consist of a single layer of
cells. The cell type may be squamous, cuboidal or
columnar giving rise to 3 types of simple
epithelium.
A Simple Squamous epithelium; This is a single
layer of flat cells. Cells are so thin that bulging are
produced by nuclei.
B Simple Cuboidal Epithelium: the length and
breadth of the cell are equal with centrally placed
rounded nuclei.
C Simple Columnar epithelium: Height of the cells
are much greater than the width. Nuclei are oval
and are near the base of the cell.
Stratified Epithelium
It consist of several layers of cells. The
commonest type of stratified epithelium is
stratified squamous epithelium in the skin. Cell in
the deepest layer are columnar, middle layer are
polyhedral and in the superficial layer shows
flattening. Nuclei are correspondingly oval in the
basal layer, rounded in the middle layer and
transversely elongated in the superficial layer. In
the keratinised variety most superficial layer loose
their nuclei, become a non living, hard cornified
layer called Keratin.
Transitional Epithelium
They are like stratified epithelium, but the surface
cells instead of being flattened, are rounded or
large umbrella shaped. Middle layer are
polyhedral or pear shaped. Cells in the deeper
layer are columnar or cuboidal. It has expansible
property and are found in the urinary bladder and
urethra. S
 Simple Cuboidal epithelium is found in the
glandular tissue and in the Kidney tubules.
Simple Columnar epithelium lies the stomach and
intestines.
Pseudo stratified columnar epithelium lines
portion of the respiratory tract and some of the
tubes of the male reproductive tract.
Transitional Epithelium can be distended or
stretched.
Glandular epithelium is specialized to produce and
secrete substances.
Connective tissues
Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework
and support for organs and the body as a whole, store fat,
transport substances, protect against disease, and help repair
tissue damage. They occur throughout the body. Connective
tissues are characterized by an abundance of intercellular
matrix with relatively few cells. Connective tissue cells are
able to reproduce but not as rapidly as epithelial cells. Most
connective tissues have a good blood supply but some do not.
Numerous cell types are found in connective tissue. Three of
the most common are the fibroblast, macrophage, and mast
cell. The types of connective tissue include loose connective
tissue, adipose tissue, dense fibrous connective tissue, elastic
connective tissue, cartilage, osseous tissue (bone), and blood.
Loose Connective tissue
Loose connective tissue is a
mass of widely scattered
Undifferentiated cells whose
matrix is a loose weave of
elastin fibers(dark pink).
Many of the fibers are strong
protein fibers called
collagen(light pink). Loose
connective tissue is found
beneath the skin and
between organs. It is a
binding and packing material
whose main purpose is to
provide support to hold other
tissues and organs in place.
Adipose tissue
Adipose Tissue is a loose fibrous connective
tissue packed with many cells (called
"adipocytes") that are specialized for storage of
triglycerides more commonly referred to as
"fats".
Each adipocyte cell is filled with a single large
droplet of triglyceride (fat). As this occupies most of
the volume of the cell, its cytoplasm, nucleus,
and other components are pushed towards the
edges of the cell - which is bounded by the plasma
membrane
Adipose tissue acts as an insulating layer, helping
to reduce heat loss through the skin.
It also has a protective function, providing
mechanical protection ("padding") and support
around some of the major organs, e.g. kidneys.
Adipose tissue is also a means of energy storage.
Food that is excess to requirements is converted
into fat and stored within adipose tissue in the body
Specific examples of the locations of adipose tissue
include:
Subcutaneous layer deep to skin;
Around the heart;
Around the kidneys;
Yellow marrow of the long bones
Padding around the joints
Inside the eye-socket, posterior to the eyeball.
Dense Connective tissue
Collagen (from the Greek kolla, meaning
"glue," and genos, meaning "descent")
is a dense connective tissue, also known
as fibrous connective tissue. It has a
matrix of densely packed collagen
fibers. There are two types of collagen:
regular and irregular. The collagen fibers
of regular dense connective tissue are
lined up in parallel. Tendons, which bind
muscle to bone, and ligaments, which
join bones together, are examples of
dense regular connective tissue. The
strong covering of various organs, such
as kidneys and muscle, is dense
irregular connective tissue.
Dense Irregular connective tissue is
found in areas where greater protection
is required or in areas of Mechanical
stress.
Mucoid Tissue
It is an embryonic
tissue and consists
of a homogenous
matrix with a fine
meshwork of
collagen fibres with
fibroblasts. This
tissue is found in
the vitreous body
and the umbilical
cord
Pigmented connective tissue
It contains
abundant
melanocytes and is
found in the
choroid, sclera and
Skin. Melanocytes
produce a pigment
melanin, which
provides colour to
the skin.
Cartilage tissue in general
Cartilage is a connective tissue consisting of a dense
matrix of collagen fibres and elastic fibres embedded
in a rubbery ground substance. The matrix is produced by
cells called chondroblasts, which become embedded in
the matrix as chondrocytes.
That is, mature cartilage cells are called chondrocytes.
They occur, either singly or in groups, within spaces called
lacunae (sing. lacuna) in the matrix.
The surface of most of the cartilage in the body is
surrounded by a membrane of dense irregular connective
tissue called perichondrium. This is important to
remember especially because (unlike other connective
tissues), cartilage contains no blood vessels or nerves -
except in the perichondrium.
Hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant of the three types
of cartilage.
It is found in many locations in the body, including:
Bronchi; Bronchial Tubes; Costal Cartilages; Larynx
(voice-box); Nose; Trachea
Covering the surface of bones at joints - especially in
areas where damage due to wear may lead to
osteoarthritis incl. e.g. the ends of the long bones,
and also the anterior ends of the ribs.
Embryonic skeleton (i.e. in the fetus).
Hyaline cartilage consists of a bluish-white, shiny ground
elastic material with a matrix of chondroitin sulphate into
which many fine collagen fibrils are embedded. It
contains numerous chondrocytes.
Hyaline cartilage tissue provides smooth surfaces,
enabling tissues to move/slide easily over each other,
e.g. facilitating smooth movements at joints. It is also
provides flexibility and support.
Fibrocartilage
Examples include:
Calli (sing. callus), which is the tissue formed
between the ends of the bone at the site of a healing
fracture (bloodclot -> granulation tissue -> cartilage
-> bone);
Intevertebral discs (i.e. the discs between the
vertebrae of the spine);
Menisci (cartilage pads) of the knee joint.
Pubic symphysis, which is the position at which the
hip bones join at the front of the body.
Also in the portions of the tendons that insert into
the cartilage tissue, especially at joints.
Fibrocartilage is a tough form of cartilage that
consists of chondrocytes scattered among clearly
visible dense bundles of collagen fibres within the
matrix. Fibrocartilage lacks a perichondrium.
Fibrocartilage tissue provides support and rigidity to
attached/surrounding structures and is the strongest
of the three types of cartilage.
Elastic Cartilage
Auditory (Eustachian) Tubes;
External Ear (Auricle); Epiglottis
(the lid on the top of the larynx)
In elastic cartilage, which is
yellowish in colour, the cartilage
cells (chondrocytes) are located in a
threadlike network of elastic fibres
within the matrix of the cartilage. A
perichondrium is present.
Elastic cartilages provides support
to surrounding structures and helps
the define and maintain the shape
of the area in which it is present,
e.g. the external ear.
Bone tissue
The bones themselves are formed from several
different connective tissues, including:
Bone (called "Osseous") tissue,
Periosteum,
Red Bone Marrow,
Yellow Bone Marrow, and
Endosteum.
Bone tissue is classified as either "compact
bone", or "spongy bone" depending on how the
bone matrix and cells are organized.
Compact Bone
The basic unit of Compact Bone is an "osteon", which is also known as a
"Haversian System".
Each Haversian System (unit) has a cylindrical structure that consists of four parts:
A central tube called a Haversian Canal, which contains blood vessels and
nerves.
The Haversian Canal is surrounded by alternate layers of:

Lamellae (the word lamellae literally means "little plates") are concentric rings of
a strong matrix formed from mineral salts including calcium and phosphates and
collagen fibres. The mineral salts result in the hardness of the bone structure,
while the collagen fibres contribute its strength.

Lacunae are the small spaces between the lamellae in which contain the bone
cells (called "osteocytes") are located.

The lacunae are linked together by minute channels called canaliculi.

The canaliculi provide routes by which nutrients can reach the osteocytes and
waste products can leave them.
Spongy Bone
Spongy Bone does not include osteons (the basic
unit/s of Compact Bone - see above).
Instead, spongy bone consists of an irregular
lattice of thin columns of bone called trabeculae
(literally "little beams"), which contain lamellae,
osteocytes, lacunae and canaliculi. The spaces
between the trabeculae of some spongy bones
are filled with red bone marrow.
Blood vessels from the periosteum, penetrate
into the trabeculae lattice allowing the
osteocytes in the trabeculae to receive
nourishment from the blood passing through the
marrow cavities.
Functions of bone tissue
Support
Protection
Assisting in Movements
Storage of minerals
Production of Blood cells
Storage of chemical energy. With increasing age
bone marrow changes from red bone marrow to
yellow bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow consist
of adipose cells and a few blood cells, which is an
imp chemical energy reserve.
Muscular tissue
Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the
special ability to shorten or contract in order to
produce movement of the body parts. The tissue
is highly cellular and is well supplied with blood
vessels. The cells are long and slender so they are
sometimes called muscle fibers, and these are
usually arranged in bundles or layers that are
surrounded by connective tissue. Actin and
myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue.
Muscle tissue can be categorized into skeletal
muscle tissue, smooth muscle tissue, and cardiac
muscle tissue.
Skeletal Muscle tissue
Skeletal muscle is called "striated"
because of its appearance
consisting of light and dark bands
visible using a light microscope. A
single skeletal muscle cell is long
and approximately cylindrical in
shape, with many nuclei located at
the edges (periphery) of the cell.
Movement of the skeleton
under concious control, including
movement of limbs, fingers, toes,
neck, etc.
Movement of tissues of facial
expression under concious control,
e.g. ability to smile and to frown.
Cardiac Muscle tissue
Cardiac muscle fibers are striated,
branched (sometimes described
as Y-shaped), and have a single
central nucleus. These fibers are
attached at their ends to adjoining
fibers by thick plasma membranes
called intercalated discs.
Pumping of blood through the
heart: Alternate contraction and
relaxation of cardiac muscle
pumps
De-oxygenated blood through the
Right Atrium and Right Ventricle to the
lungs, and
Oxygenated blood through the Left
Atrium and Left Ventricle to the aorta,
then the rest of the body.
Smooth Muscle tissue
Unlike Skeletal and Cardiac muscle
tissue, Smooth muscle is not striated.
Smooth muscle fibers are small and
tapered - with the ends reducing in size,
in contrast to the cylindrical shape of
skeletal muscle. Each smooth muscle
fiber has a single centrally located
nucleus.
Contractions of smooth muscle constrict
(i.e. narrow = reduce the diameter of)
the vessels they surround. This is
particularly important in the digestive
system in which the action of smooth
muscle helps to move food along the
gastrointestinal tract as well as breaking
the food down further. Smooth muscle
also contributes to moving fluids
through the body and to the elimination
of indigestible matter from the
gastrointestinal system.
Types of Location in Voluntary Striations Cell Nuclei
Muscle the body or
tissue involuntar
y
Skeletal Attached to Voluntary Striated Many
Muscle Bones Muscle nuclei(locat
tissue mostly ed at
periphery of
long
cylindrical
Muscle
fibers)
Cardiac Wall of the Involuntary Striated One
Muscle Heart Only Muscle Centrally
tissue located
nuclei
Smooth Blood Involuntary Non-striated One
Muscle Vessels Centrally
tissue Stomach located
Intestines Nuclei
Gall Bladder
Urinary
Bladder
Airways to
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible
for coordinating and controlling many body activities. It stimulates muscle
contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role
in emotions, memory, and reasoning. To do all these things, cells in nervous
tissue need to be able to communicate with each other by way of electrical
nerve impulses.
The cells in nervous tissue that generate and conduct impulses are called
neurons or nerve cells. These cells have three principal parts: the dendrites,
the cell body, and one axon. The main part of the cell, the part that carries on
the general functions, is the cell body. Dendrites are extensions, or processes,
of the cytoplasm that carry impulses to the cell body. An extension or process
called an axon carries impulses away from the cell body.
Nervous tissue also includes cells that do not transmit impulses, but instead
support the activities of the neurons. These are the glial cells (neuroglial
cells), together termed the neuroglia. Supporting, or glia, cells bind neurons
together and insulate the neurons. Some are phagocytic and protect against
bacterial invasion, while others provide nutrients by binding blood vessels to
the neurons.
Neuron Structure
The cell body (soma or perikaryon) contains the nucleus and other cell
organelles.
There are clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum that are called Nissl bodies
or are sometimes referred to as chromatophilic substances.
The dendrite is typically a short, abundantly branched, slender process
(extension) of the cell body that receives stimuli.
The axon is typically a long, slender process of the cell body that sends nerve
impulses. It emerges from the cell body at the cone-shaped axon hillock.
Nerve impulses arise in the trigger zone, generally located in the initial
segment, an area just outside the axon hillock. The cytoplasm of the axon,
the axoplasm, is surrounded by its plasma membrane, the axolemma. A
few axons branch along their lengths to form axon collaterals, and these
branches may return to merge with the main axon. At its end, each axon or
axon collateral usually forms numerous branches ( telodendria), with most
branches terminating in bulb-shaped structures called synaptic knobs
(synaptic end bulbs, also called terminal boutons). The synaptic knobs contain
neurotransmitters, chemicals that transmit nerve impulses to a muscle or
another neuron.
Types of Neurons
Functionally they fall into 3 groups;
Sensory Neuronswhich transmit sensory
impulses from the sensory organs to the CNS. Ex-
brain and Spinal Cord
Motor Neurons--- transmit nerve impulse from the
CNS towards the effectors, target cells that
produce some kind of response.
Association Neurons are located in the CNS and
transmit impulse from sensory neurons to motor
neurons. 90% of neurons are association Neurons.
Structure classification of
Neurons
Multipolar neurons have one axon and several to
numerous dendrites. Most neurons are of this
type.
Bipolar Neurons have one axon and one dendrite.
They are found as specialized sensory organs in
the eye, ear, or olfactory organs
Unipolar Neurons both axon and dendrites
function together as single axon. Dendrites
emerge from one of the terminal ends of the axon.
Trigger zone in unipolar neuron is located at the
junction of the axon and dendrites. Unipolar
neurons are mostly sensory neurons.