REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO)

AND

ELECTRODEIONIZATION
(EDI)
Rehan Mustafa
Muhammad Nazim

Huaneng Shandong Ruyi (Pakistan) Energy

Pvt. Ltd.
WHY TREAT WATER?
Water is the working medium

Most supercritical boilers use the once-through technology

Extremely high level of water purity required

Corrosion of boiler pipes and deposition on turbine blades

Removal of soluble gases, suspended solids and dissolved solids

CHARACTERISTICS OF BOILER
FEEDWATER Working Pressure (MPa)
Parameters
0 2.1 10.3 13.8
Dissolved Oxygen
0.04 0.007
(mg/L)
Total Iron (mg/L) 0.1 0.01

pH at 25C 7.2 10 9.0 9.6

Silica (mg/L) 150 1

TDS (mg/L) 4000 100

WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM
Provision of demineralized feed water to boiler

Make up for the various losses in the steam and water circulating
system

Raw water from Sedimentation Activated Carbon

Dual Media Filter
River/Sea Tank Filter

Demineralized
Electrodeionizati
Water Storage Reverse Osmosis Ultrafiltration
on
Tanks
REVERSE
OSMOSIS
INTRODUCTION
Research on reverse osmosis dates back to the 1960s

Osmosis is a natural phenomenon in which a solvent (water) flows from an

area of low solute concentration to a high solute concentration through a
semi-permeable membrane

Pressure exerted by the solute is called osmotic pressure

Pressure applied on the high solute concentration side will reverse the
osmosis phenomenon and result is the separation of solute from solvent

This reversal is called reverse osmosis

CONTD.

The driving force of reverse osmosis is applied pressure

The amount of pressure required depends on the salt

concentration of the feed water

Greater the salt concentration, higher the required pressure

A reverse osmosis membrane is a semi-permeable membrane

that allows the passage of water molecules but not the majority
of dissolved salts, organics and bacteria
CONTD.

Cross-flow filtration in reverse osmosis

One inlet (feed water) and two outlets (product water and reject
water)
CONTD.

The desalinated water that is demineralized or deionized, is

called permeate (or product) water

The water stream that carries the concentrated contaminants

that did not pass through the RO membrane is called the
concentrate (or reject) stream.

The concentrate can be sent to drain or recirculated in order to

save water.
WHAT DOES RO REMOVE FROM
WATER?
Removal based on size and charge of contaminants

Dissolved solids (<2 m) removal efficiency in RO is 95 99%

Molecular weight > 200

Greater the ionic charge of the contaminant, the more likely it will be unable to
pass through the RO membrane

Very effective in treating brackish, surface and ground water

Reverse Osmosis membrane does not remove gases

FILTRATION SPECTRUM

Reverse osmosis membranes block particles that are larger than

0.1 nm
TYPES OF FILTRATION FLOW
Dead End Filtration Cross-flow Filtration
OSMOTIC PRESSURE

Generated by ionic content of dissolved solids

The osmotic pressure of a solution increases with the

concentration of a solution

Organics do not contribute significantly to osmotic pressure

Osmotic pressure increases by approximately 0.06 kPa for each

mg/L (NaCl)

Seawater has an osmotic pressure of 2.4 MPa

CONTD.

At seawater concentration of 32,000 mg/L, osmotic pressure is

2.3 MPa

Osmotic pressure at 25C and 1000 mg/L

PRESSURE VESSEL
Pressurized membrane operation

Also called the housing of a membrane

Includes the reverse osmosis membranes and

other essential components

There can be one to eight membranes in a

pressure vessel

The most popular membrane size is 8 inches in

diameter and 40 inches in length

An array describes the physical arrangement

of the pressure vessels
TYPES OF MEMBRANES

Most membranes are synthetic organic polymers

RO membranes are typically either cellulose acetate or

polysulfone coated with aromatic polyamides

Four main types of membrane modules

Plate and frame
Tubular
Spiral wound
Hollow fiber
CONTD.

Most common RO membranes are spiral wound modules

Flat sheet membrane wrapped around a perforated permeate
collection tube
Feed flows on one side of the membrane
Permeate is collected on other side of the membrane and spirals in
towards the center collection tube
CONTD.

Cellulose based membrane

Also called Loeb-Sourirajan Cellulose
Acetate (CA) membrane.
Made from acetylated cellulose
Relatively easy to manufacture with
excellent mechanical properties
Tolerate up to 5 ppm of free chlorine
Sensitive to pH changes (4 7.5)
Salt rejection decreases with increasing
temperature
CONTD.
Thin Film Composite (TFC)
Membranes
It is negatively charged
Porous, highly permeable support
layer of polysulfone coated with cross-
linked aromatic polyamides thin film
This coating provides salt rejection
properties of membrane
Higher flux and rejection than CA
membranes
Stable over higher pH (4 11) and
temperature range (up to 35C)
Highly susceptible to attack by
chlorine
REJECTION CHARACTERISTICS OF
TFC MEMBRANE
Ion % Rejection
Sodium 92 98
Calcium 93 99
Magnesium 93 98
Potassium 92 96
Iron 96 98
Copper 96 99
Mercury 92 97
Hardness (calcium and
93 97
magnesium)
Chloride 92 98
Phosphate 95 98
Lead 95 98
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF
SPIRAL WOUND MEMBRANE
There are four major non-
membrane components in spiral
wound module
Feed spacer
Permeate spacer
Permeate tube
End cap
CONTD.

Feed spacer
Biplanar extruded net with cylindrical mesh structure
Thickness varies from 0.6 0.9 mm
Provides open channel for evenly flowing feed water by
maintaining separation between membrane sheets
Moves salts and other rejected contaminants away from
membrane surface by promoting mixing within feed
channel
CONTD.

Permeate spacer
Provides conduit for collection and transport of permeate from membrane
to permeate tube
Woven polyester fabric is most commonly used material
Sandwiched between two sheets of membrane to create an envelope called
membrane leaf

Permeate tube
Collects permeate from spacer materials inside the module
In multi membrane pressure vessels, theyre connected in series
Transports the permeate from the pressure vessel to the external piping
The inside diameter is generally 2.5 cm
CONTD.

Endcap
Highly engineered,
injection-moulded plastic
component
Prevents relative axial
movement of membrane
leaves
Transmits axial load from
module to module
Holds a brine seal which
prevents the feed water
from bypassing the
module
RO PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN
CALCULATIONS
Following parameters should be known in order to accurately
measure RO system performance:
Feed pressure
Permeate pressure
Concentrate pressure
Feed conductivity
Permeate conductivity
Feed flow
Permeate flow
Temperature
SALT REJECTION PERCENTAGE

Informs about effectiveness of the RO membranes at removing
contaminants

A proper functioning RO system will have rejection rates from 95

99%

Higher salt rejection exhibits good system performance

RECOVERY PERCENTAGE

The amount of water that is treated by the membrane

(permeate)

Higher recovery rate indicates more water saving

If recovery percentage is too high, it will lead to excessive scaling

and fouling

Recovery rate varies from 50 85% depending on feed water

quality
CONCENTRATION FACTOR

Related
to the RO system recovery

Higher the recovery rate, higher will be the contaminant

concentration in the reject stream

This can lead to higher scaling potential on membrane surface

If the recovery rate is 75%, then the water in concentrate stream

would be 4 times more concentrated than the feed water
MEMBRANE FLUX

Amount ofpermeateproduced per unit area
ofmembranesurface per unit time
Source GFD
Fluxis generally expressed as gallons per Sea water 8 12
square foot per day (GFD) Surface water 10 14
Well water 14 18
RO permeate 20 30
MASS BALANCE
Helps determine if flow and quality instrumentation is working
properly or requires calibration

Example
Permeate flow = 5 gpm
Feed conductivity = 500 S
Permeate conductivity = 10 S
Concentrate flow = 2 gpm
Concentrate conductivity = 1200 S
CONTD.

Mass balance equation will be

Find the difference

A difference of +/- 5 10% is allowed, otherwise calibrate the

instrumentation
PASS AND STAGE IN RO SYSTEM

Pass system
The permeate of one vessel becomes the feed for the next vessel
Results in more purified water
Allows for CO2 removal by injecting NaOH between first and second pass

Stage System
The concentrate of the first vessel becomes feed for the next vessel
Results in a higher recovery percentage

A concentrate recycle setup can be used to increase system recovery

WEIHAI POWER PLANT RO
SYSTEM
Three stages of feed water RO treatment are carried out

Seawater RO (SWRO)
System 2 units (each unit has 39 pressure vessels)
Max. operating pressure = 6.8 MPa
Recovery rate = 40%
Capacity = 150 m3/hr
Security filter size = 5 m
Single stage/ one pass system
Concentrate is used to generate NaOCl
CONTD.

Energy Recovery Device (ERD)

Energy recovery can reduce energy consumption by 50% or more
Carried out through a pressure exchanger
Pressurize part of the membrane feed flow to near concentrate flow
pressure
Boost pump then raises this pressure by typically 0.3 MPa to the
membrane feed pressure
Reduces flow needed from the high-pressure pump by amount equal
to concentrate flow
Capable of 3 kWh/m3or less energy consumption
CONTD.
1st Level Freshwater RO
(FWRO)
2 units (15 vessels each in a 10:5
array)
Working pressure = 1.6 MPa
Recovery rate = 85%
Product volume = 90 m3/hr (one
unit)
Security filter size = 5 m
Concentrate goes to UF tank
2nd Level Freshwater RO
(FWRO)
2 units (12 vessels each in a 9:3
array)
Working pressure 1.6 MPa
Recovery rate = 90%
Product volume = 80 m3/hr (one
unit)
Security filter size = 5 m
Concentrate goes to SWRO tank
FACTORS AFFECTING RO
MEMBRANE PERFORMANCE
Effect of pressure
Affects water flux and salt rejection
Water flux increases with feed water pressure
Salt rejection increases up till a certain extent with
increasing feed water pressure

Effect of temperature
Membrane productivity is sensitive to feed water
temperature fluctuation
Water flux increases almost linearly with water
temperature due to high diffusion rate of water
It results in low salt rejection as salt diffusion rate
is high through membrane
CONTD.

Effect of salt concentration

As salt concentration increases, so does
osmotic pressure
Pressure required to reverse osmotic
pressure is defined by level of salts in the
feed water
At constant pressure, higher salt
concentration results in lower membrane
water flux
Decrease in salt rejection through the
membrane as water flux declines
CONTD.

Effect of recovery
If percentage recovery is increased (at constant feed
pressure), the salts in the residual feed become more
concentrated
Natural osmotic pressure will increase until it is as high as
the applied feed pressure
This can negate the driving effect of feed pressure and
cause permeate flux and salt rejection to decrease and
even stop

Effect of pH
pH tolerance varies widely based on RO membrane type
Membrane salt rejection performance depends on pH
Water flux and salt rejection for TFC membranes is
essentially stable over a broad pH range
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION

The higher the temperature, the

Feed Water
more the permeate flow Correction Factor
Temperature (C)
All reverse osmosis membrane 7 2.22
elements and systems are rated at 8 2.11
25C
9 2
Example 10 1.89
If permeate flow at 25C is 900 28 0.91
gallons/day, then permeate flow at
29 0.88
10C will be = 900/1.89 = 476.2
gallons/day 30 0.85
At 30C, the flow will be = 900/0.85 =
1058.8 gallons/day
* This table is only for TFC membranes
PROBLEMS IN RO MEMBRANES

All membranes lose their performance over time

RO requires pre-treatment of feed water in order to perform optimally

One of the major causes for the loss of performance is due to

substances that deposit on the membrane surface

Three major problems due to inadequate pre-treatment are

Fouling
Scaling
Chemical attack
FOULING
Fouling occurs when contaminants accumulate on the membrane
surface effectively plugging the membrane

Fouling of membranes is due to the suspended or emulsified

materials

Fouling typically occurs in the front end of an RO system

Higher pressure drop across the RO system and increase in

membrane resistance
CONTD.

Main consequences of fouling are

Flux decline
Permeate quality degradation
Energy consumption increase

Four major types of fouling

Biofouling (microbial contamination)
Scaling (precipitation and deposition of salts)
Organics (from substances like hydrocarbons)
Colloidal (mainly from clay and silica)
CONTD.

Main mechanisms of membrane fouling are

Adsorption
Due to chemical affinity between solute and membrane
Biofouling
Caused by bacterial adhesion and microbial growth on membrane
Gel formation
Due to molecule accumulation at film layer of membrane
Pore blockage
When solute goes inside membrane pores
SCALING

Certain dissolved (inorganic) compounds exceed their solubility limits

and precipitate on the membrane surface as scale

Higher pressure drop across the system

Typically occurs at back end of the RO system

Low salt rejection and low permeate flow

Common scale that tends to form on an RO membrane include

calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium sulfate (CaSO 4)
CHEMICAL ATTACK

Modern thin film composite membranes are not tolerant to

chlorine or chloramines

Oxidizers will 'burn' holes in the membrane pores and can cause
irreparable damage

This is the reason why chlorine cannot be used as biocide in RO

membrane

Higher permeate flow and a lower rejection rate

RECOGNIZING A PROBLEM

Problem Symptom
Decrease in normalized flow rate (NPF)
Scaling Increase in pressure drop across last stage
Decrease in % salt rejection
Decrease in NPF
Fouling Increase in pressure drop across first stage
Little to no effect on % salt rejection
Increase in NPF
Chemical attack Little to no effect on pressure drop
Decline in % salt rejection
DETERMINING FOULING
POTENTIAL CAPACITY
One of the following parameters can be used to determine the
fouling potential capacity in the feed water

Silt Density Index (SDI)

Common parameter applied for fouling potential
Based on measurement of plugging a membrane filter of 0.45 m at 210 kPa
Value should not be > 5

Modified Fouling Index (MFI)

Based on occurrence of cake filtration
Uses same equipment as SDI
CONTD.

Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)

Correlates presence of calcium carbonate with its potential precipitation
Commonly used for low salinity waters

Stiff and Davies Index (S&DI)

Similar to LSI, but more accurate for high salinity waters
Adds the effect of ionic strength and temperature
EFFECT OF CHEMICALS ON
ORGANIC MEMBRANES
Can cause an irreversible loss in performance and compromise
the life of the membrane

Oxidants (chlorine, bromine, peroxide, ozone etc.) can degrade

cross-linking or packing of molecules in polyamide layer

Maximum chlorine concentration should not exceed 0.1 ppm for

a maximum of 1000 hours.

Wide variety of chemicals which swell or dissolve polysulfone

material

Aprotic solvents, aromatic hydrocarbons, ketones, aldehydes,

strong esters can damage the polysulfone layer
CONTD.

Some polymers and surfactants may chemically bond to the

membrane surface

The negatively charged membrane surface will attract the positively

charged organic molecules in a cationic surfactant

Once these large organic molecules come in contact with the

membrane, other attractive forces take effect and form strong bonds
between the molecule and the membrane surface

These bonds are very difficult to break and can permanently reduce
flux by as much as 60%
CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION

Refers to the concentration gradient of salts on the

high pressure side of the reverse osmosismembrane
surface

The salt concentration in this boundary layer exceeds

the concentration of the bulk water

This process leads to following impacts on membrane

performance
Reduced flux
Increased salt leakage
Increased probability of scaling

Increasing the velocity (turbulence) of the brine

stream helps to reduce theconcentration polarization.
 Add aniamtion
5 KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS
IN RO OPERATION
Silt Density Index (SDI)
On-site measurement of the suspended particles and
colloids in the feed water
Monitor the performance of the pre-treatment equipment

RO System Pressure Drop

Difference between the inlet to the initial membrane
elements and the concentrate stream pressure
As long as the flows and temperature are constant, the
P will not change unless something physically blocks
the passage of flow
Can inform about fouling or scaling
CONTD.
Normalized permeate flow
Adjusts the daily data readings to what they would be if the system were
operating at start-up pressure at 25C
Seasonal feed water temperature variations can make fouling trends difficult to
detect

Percent rejection
Monitoring of the permeate TDS

Pressure Drop Coefficient (PDC)

One of the best ways to trend the data is using the Pressure Drop Coefficient
(PDC) versus P
Dimensionless number that is sensitive to any changes in the unit
PDC is more sensitive to changes, making it a good choice for the deciding
factor for clean-on-place (CIP) processes
CHEMICAL PRETREATMENT OF RO

Following types of chemicals are used in chemical pre-treatment

of reverse osmosis membrane
Acid
Alkali
Dechlorination chemical
Anti-scalant
Biocide
CONTD.

Acid
Acid (HCl or H2SO4) is injected in RO feed water to lower pH
HCl is preferred when calcium sulfate, barium sulfate and strontium
sulfate scaling is a concern
HCl is typically available as 30 37% solution
Primary purpose for reducing feed pH is to reduce potential of
calcium carbonate scaling
CONTD.

Alkali
Alkali (mainly NaOH) can be added to raise the feed pH
NaOH is available as 20 or 50% solution
Most common point of application is before 2nd pass RO
At pH 8.2, CO2 is converted into bicarbonate ion which is rejected by
RO membrane
Silica and boron rejection is higher at elevated pH levels
Care must be exercised when increasing pH as it will decrease
solubility of iron, manganese and calcium carbonate
Biological and organic fouling is reduced at higher pH
CONTD.

Dechlorination chemical
There should be no free chlorine residual in RO feed water
It can cause irreparable oxidation damage to membranes
Most common pre-treatment methods are absorption on activated
granular carbon filter media or by using a chemical reducing agent like
sodium bisulfite (SBS)
SBS (NaHSO3) is a typical chlorine reducing agent
1.47 ppm of SBS (or 0.7 ppm of SMBS) will neutralize 1 ppm of chlorine
SBS needs to be added far enough upstream of RO elements to ensure a
20 seconds reaction time
In presence of sulfur reducing bacteria (SBR), SBS acts as nutrient and
enhances their growth
CONTD.

Anti-scalant
Used to inhibit the formation and precipitation of crystallized mineral
salts that form scale
Retard growth of crystalline salt structures in feed and concentrate
streams
Most anti-scalants are organic artificial polymers (polyacrylic acids,
carboxylic acids, anionic polymers etc.)
Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) was popular during the early
days of RO
CONTD.

Biocide
TFC membranes have limited resistance to chlorine based
oxidants
2,2-dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide (DBNPA) (non-oxidizing
biocide) is very effective at low concentrations in controlling
microbial growth
Vast majority of microorganisms that come into contact with it
are killed within 5 to 10 minutes
For continuous dosing, 0.5 2 ppm of active ingredient is
recommended
DBNPA is deactivated by reducing agents
For every 1 ppm of SBS added, additional 1 1.3 ppm of DBNPA
is required
Although DBNPA is useful as a disinfectant, it should not be used
for storage since it is not long-acting
RO MEMBRANE CLEANING
With time, the membrane pores get clogged due to the
retained contaminants

Essential to clean at an early stage of fouling

Backwashing is carried out on a daily basis

During backwashing, pores are flushed inside out

Higher pressure on permeate side

Backwashed in based on flow induced by osmotic pressure

Combination of forward flow and backwashing

CHEMICAL CLEANING

Acid (HCl) and alkali (NaOH) is used for chemical cleaning of membrane

Chemical recommended when one or more of the following parameters change

by 10 15%
An increase in product water conductivity or salt passage.
An increase inpressure drop across the RO system.
An increase in feed pressure.
A decrease in normalized permeate flow (NPF) output or flux.

Acidic cleaning is used for to remove precipitated salts and scalants

Alkaline cleaning is used to remove organic fouling

CONTD.

Type of fouling Cleaning agent

Colloidal NaOH (0.1%), chelating agents, surfactants
Organic NaOH, chelating agents, surfactants
Metal oxides Citric acid with low pH
Silica NaOH with high pH
Carbonate (CaCO3) Citric acid or HCl (0.2%) with low pH
Sulphate (CaSO4) HCl or sequestration agents (EDTA)
Biofilms NaOH, chelating or sequestration agents,
surfactants and disinfectants
CONTD.
For good cleaning results, velocity should be higher and pressure lower than
normal operation

During acid cleaning, the acid pH should be maintained at 2

During alkali cleaning, the pH should be maintained at 11 12

Typical cleaning procedure consists of following steps

Low flow pumping of cleaning solution at minimum pressure
Recycling of cleaning solution (2 hrs) until stable temperature is achieved. pH can be
adjusted at this stage
Soaking RO membranes with cleaning solutions (5 6 hrs), depending on type and
grade of fouling
High flow operation to flush foulants and cleaning solution out of system
CLEANING TIPS
It is strongly recommended to clean stages of RO separately

This is to avoid carry over of foulants from 1 st stage to 2nd stage

Selection of first cleaning step (acid or alkali) is important

Always measure pH during cleaning

Long soak times can allow foulants to precipitate back on membranes

Temperature drop should not be more than 5C

Turbid or strong colored cleaning solutions should be replaced

RO START-UP
Water washing should be provided before start-up of RO system

The inlet valve is opened before high pressure pump

The system is washed with low pressure water (<0.7 MPa)

The soft start prevents hydraulic shock at start-up

The pre-treatment chemical can be added at this time

Then high pressure pump is turned on and system is slowly brought to design
permeate flow

If starting up after a shutdown, drain the permeate for 30 mins to remove residual
preservation chemical
SHUTDOWN

Silica is found to crystallize during shut down

System washing with permeate water is provided before shut-

down in order to remove certain suspended solids that may settle
on membrane surface during stagnant periods

The elements should not be left dry for long after shutdown, it
will cause irreparable flux loss
CONTD.
Short-term shutdown
When the system is to be shutdown between 1 4 days
The steps include water rinsing and then water soaking
This is repeated after 24 hours

Long-term shutdown
When system shutdown is longer than 4 days
500 mg/L SBS or SMBS (1 2%) is used as preservation chemical
Circulate the solution for 0.5 1 hr and then soak the membrane in the
solution
pH should not drop below 3
If temperature is below 27C, change solution after 30 days
Otherwise, change the solution after 15 days
COMMON FAILURES IN RO SYSTEM
Failure Effect
High salt passage, pressure
Scaling
difference in last stage
Iron loading on cartridge
High iron filters. Iron fouling of
content membranes high pressure
difference, low permeate flow.
Humic substances and
High organic organic fouling on membrane
content low permeate flow, high
feed pressure
Colloidal particles foul micron
Colloidal filters and membranes high
breakthrough pressure difference, low
permeate flow.
Recommended
Monitoring Practice
Check dosing equipment
and monitor changes in
water quality
Pipe-work corrosion, ferric
breakthrough from media
beds, failure of media
filters.
Feed water composition,
review flocculation
procedures, feed water
color, TOC.
Silt Density Index (SDI),
condition of cartridge
filters, eliminate media
fines.
CONTD.

Recommended Monitoring
Failure Effect
Practice
Cationic coagulant fouls
Overdosing Check dosing levels and detect
membrane low permeate
of coagulant excess traces.
flow, high feed pressure.
Dosing equipment, Redox
Membrane damage high
Overdosing meters, bisulfite dosing levels
salt passage and increased
of chlorine and positioning of dosing point,
flux.
chlorine test kit.

Permeate Check individual pressure vessel

tube O High salt passage. conductivity, probe suspect PVs
ring failure to check individual membrane
product conductivity.
CONTD.

Recommended
Failure Effect
Monitoring Practice
Scale formation
Acid dosing pH monitor /controller.
CaCO3only.
Check membrane flush
Poor performance procedures on shut down
Fouling / scaling of
on start up after and preservation
membranes.
shutdown procedures on extended
shutdown.
Biocide adsorption on
High bacterial / fungal GAC, check contact times
counts in water samples. and dose rate, select
Ineffective biocide
Biofouling of membranes broad-spectrum biocide,
high pressure difference. Select biocide for organic
content.
ELECTRODEIONIZATI
ON
INTRODUCTION

EDI devices and systems were first fully commercialized in early 1987

Acts as a polishing treatment for reverse osmosis permeate

It is a replacement of mixed bed deionization system

Environment friendly and chemical free process

Recovery rate ranges from 90 95%

It is a combination of electrodialysis and mixed bed ion-exchange

ELECTRODIALYSIS

Electric current is the main driving force

for separation

Based on membrane technology and

ionic attraction to an electric field

Water passes through cells separated

by either cationic or anionic membranes

When potential is applied across

membranes, cations migrate to cathode
and anions migrate to anode
CONTD.

The flow of ions is controlled by membranes

Highly efficient method for separating and concentrating salts

Anion-selective (sulphonated polystyrene) and cation-selective (polystyrene

with quaternary ammonia) membranes

Purified or concentrated water is generated within the compartments

Many compartments placed together comprise a stack

Particles not carrying any electrical charge are not removed

MIXED BED ION EXCHANGE

Ion exchange resins are used to produce deionized water

Small plastic beads composed of organic polymer beads having charged

functional group

If functional group is negative, it is cation resin (R-H)

Weak Acid Cation (WAC) used in alkalization
Strong Acid Cation (SAC)

If it is positive, it is anion resin (R-OH)

Weak Base Anion (WBA) does not remove silica or CO 2
Strong Base Anion (SBA)
CONTD.

Different ions are attracted to a resin bead with different strengths

Weak attraction of hydrogen and hydroxyl to their respective resin beads

As positively charged cations flow across cation resin beads, the cations
are exchanged for hydrogen (H+)

As negatively charged anions flow across anion resin beads, the anions
are exchanged for hydroxyl (OH -)

Resin requires regeneration after it is exhausted

CONTD.

Cation Resin
R-H + Na+ R-Na + H+

Anion Resin
R-OH + Cl - R-Cl + OH

Generally resin is regenerated using acid and alkali

EDI utilizes chemical-free regeneration

CONTINUOUS
ELECTRODEIONIZATION (CEDI)
The ion exchange resins are being
continuously being regenerated by the DC
electric field

The electric field also provides a

bacteriostatic environment inside of the
EDI cell

EDI has significantly lower operating costs

than conventional ion exchange processes

EDI has a significantly smaller footprint

than conventional ion exchange processes
CONTD.

CEDI devices are susceptible to hardness scaling, organic fouling

and physical plugging by particulates and colloids

By using RO as pre-treatment to the CEDI, the dissolved solids

are reduced to a level that allows the CEDI to meet the feed
water quality requirements of a high-pressure boiler

CEDI utilizes a reaction/transport mechanism to remove ions

The transport is largely across the surface of the resin beads

CONTD.

Continuous electrodeionization removes dissolved, ionizable

materials such as salts, acids and bases

It can also remove weakly ionized materials such as dissolved silica,

carbon dioxide and some organics

Resin provides the benefit of

Better electrical path, hence increasing current efficiency
Facilitate ion transfer in low ionic strength solutions
Continuously regenerated by dissociation of H + and OH
substrate for electrochemical reactions
CEDI OPERATION

In the module, direct current is applied to the anode (positive electrode) on

one end of the module, and to the cathode (negative electrode) on the other
end

This electric potential drives the ions captured by the ion exchange resins
through the membrane

Continuous electro-regeneration enables continuous electrodeionization

systems to produce multi-megaohm water without the need for chemical
regeneration or downtime

Normally plate-and-frame devices with varying numbers of cell pairs to

accommodate flow rates from 0.5 gallons per minute (gpm) to 1,000 gpm
CONTD.

A typical system uses one kilowatt-hour (KwH) of electricity to deionize

1,000 gallons, based on a feed conductivity of 50 micromhos/cm and a
product water resistivity of 10 megaohm-cm

With RO pre-treatment, CEDI can produce high-purity water with resistivity

of 10 18 megaohm-cm

EDI concentrate (or reject) stream contains only the feed water
contaminants at 5-20 times higher concentration, it can usually be
discharged without treatment

The reject stream is usually of better quality than the feed to the RO system
CONTD.

The most common cathode material for EDI devices is stainless steel

Commonly used anode materials include iridium-coated titanium and platinum-

coated titanium

Gases are evolved by the reactions at both the cathode and anode

These must be removed to prevent masking the surface of the electrode,

which would result in a voltage drop and reduce the voltage applied to the cells

Removal of the gases is accomplished by maintaining a flow of water across

the surface of the electrodes during operation
PLATE-AND-FRAME EDI DEVICES

EDI devices can be either plate-and-frame

or spiral wound

Plate and frame devices can be broken

down into two major subsets, based on
the thickness of the diluting
compartments
Thin cell (2 3 mm)
Thick cell (8 10 mm)

The compartments alternate between

diluting and concentrating, and are
hydraulically in parallel but electrically in
series
ION EXCHANGE MEMBRANE
SELECTION
Ion exchange membranes are selectively permeable

Homogeneous membranes consist of thin films of continuous ion exchange

material, typically on a fabric support

Heterogeneous membranes consist of small ion exchanger particles embedded in

an inert binder, with or without any support

Some important factors for membrane selection are

Low water permeability
Low electrical resistance
Resistance to contraction or expansion
Resistance to high and low pH
DILUTE FILLED vs ALL FILLED

Dilute filled
Resin filled in alternating compartments

All filled
Resin filled in all compartments (product
and concentrate)

Resin acts as a conductive bridge for

both ions and current

All filled design eliminates the need for

brine injection or concentrate
recirculation

Basic repeating element of the EDI is

called a "cell-pair"
DRAWBACKS OF SALT INJECTION

Concentrate recirculation would consume about 1 to 2 kilowatt-hours

per thousand gallons of product water (kWh/kgal), where about 0.5
kWh/kgal is for the recirculation pump alone

Increasing the salt concentration in the EDI concentrate stream

Limits the ability to recover that stream

Increases the concentration gradient between the diluting and
concentrating cells
Increases the possibility of salt bridging and electrical shorting, and
Leads to the formation of chlorine at the anode when fed with recirculated
concentrate water
ION REMOVAL

The ions with the strongest charge, the smallest mass, and the
highest adsorption to the resins are removed with the highest
efficiency

These typically include H+, OH-, Na+, Cl-, Ca+2, and SO4-2

The first section of the EDI module is known as the working bed

The pH approaches 7.0 in this section since the H +and OH-ions

become balanced
CONTD.

Moderately ionized and polarizable ions are removed next (e.g, CO 2)

The second and third sections of the EDI module are known as the "polishing
bed".

CO2is forced into the bicarbonate (HCO3-) form which is weakly adsorbed by the
anion resin

As long as CO2(in all forms) is less than 5 mg/l, high quality ultrapure water can be
achieved

If the CO2concentration is greater than 10 mg/l, it can interfere with the total
removal of ions and strongly impacts the EDI product quality and the silica
removal.
CONTD.

Weakly ionized species are removed last (e.g., dissolved silica and boron)

The residence time available in this third section of the module is important

Long third-section residence time can be achieved by minimizing the

conductivity of the RO product (the quantity of "easy" ions to be removed)
and minimizing the quantity of CO2in the RO product.

Silica is one of the more important minerals to remove from water for power
generation

Silica in raw water will range from less than 2 ppm to over 100 ppm
CONTD.

Physical processes such as reverse osmosis (RO) will remove colloidal silica

EDI will only remove reactive silica

Removal of reactive silica depends upon its charge

Raising the pH to above 9.8 helps with the driving force

It is important to maintain the silica content of the EDI feed stream to under
0.5 ppm as silica in order to
Avoid scaling in the EDI concentrate stream
Minimize silica levels in the product water
EDI FEED WATER REQUIREMENTS
Dechlorination
Causes the resins to disintegrate which results in an increased pressure drop across
the module
Ideal concentration level for oxidants is zero
Chlorine damage is irreversible
Chlorine is a common cause of EDI failure

Hardness
Can cause scaling in EDI units
Take place in the concentrate chambers at the high-pH surfaces of the anionic
membrane
Increases the electrical resistance of the module
Increases the pressure drop in the concentrate
Maximum tolerable feed hardness is 1 ppm as CaCO 3
CONTD.
Carbon Dioxide
Typically exists in a dissolved state in the feed water
CO2is in fact an ionic load on the EDI module
Each ppm of CO2as CO2=2.66 S/cm

Particulates, metals, TOC

Organics (TOC) adsorb to the surfaces of the resins and membranes.
Causes fouling of the active sites
Stack electrical resistance will increase.
Plugging of resin increases the pressure drop across the module
Iron and other active metals (e.g., Mn) may strongly and permanently
adsorb to, and reduce the capacity of, the internal resins and membranes
STEADY STATE OPERATION

Steady state is defined as reaching a mass balance on the ions entering and
leaving the module

Normally, an EDI module will start up with high quality product water

After operating conditions have changed, a module will take between 8 and 24
hours to reach a new steady state

Steady state for trace ions such as silica may take as long as 2-4 weeks

At Steady State: Total Ions Out = Total Ions In

Module Filling with Ions: Total Ions Out < Total Ions In
Module Recovering from Overload: Total Ions Out> Total Ions In
FACTORS AFFECTING
PERFORMANCE
Voltage
Voltage is the driving force
The local voltage gradients also cause H 2O to split into H+and OH-ions
The splitting helps in removal weakly ionized species
These also prevent the growth of bacteria within the EDI module
Normal operating voltage range is approximately 5 8 Volts/cell
Optimum voltage depends on
Number of cells in the module
Temperature
Concentrate conductivity
Concentrate flow rate (recovery)
CONTD.

At voltages lower than optimum voltage, the driving force is inadequate to

move the ions across the purifying chamber resin bed and then across the
membranes before the product stream exits the module.
At voltages higher than optimum, the overvoltage creates excess water
splitting and therefore excess current, and also causes ion polarization and
thus back diffusion, which lowers product water resistivity.

Current
Typical current draw for an EDI module at nominal voltage is 2-4 amps with a
feed conductivity of 4-10 S/cm
Current at high feed conductivities (20-30 S/cm) will lead to currents as high
as 8 amps
current efficiency is the fraction of the total current that is required to move
the impurity ions in the EDI feed.
CONTD.

If the module current is higher than expected, it could be because

the voltage is set higher than optimum, and excess water splitting
results in the excess current
The nominal concentrate flow is 10% of the feed flow
If the concentrate flow is lower than recommended, the concentrate
will be more conductive and the current will increase

Ionic species
Ionic charge is important since it is the driving force to move the ions
along the resin surfaces to the membrane, and through it
The larger the effective size the slower the diffusion rate
CONTD.

Higher the ionic charge the stronger the applied voltage will pull the ion
through the membrane
If the total ion load to the EDI is lowered, the working section of the
module will be small, and the polishing section relatively larger.
Raising the pH of the EDI feed is counter-productive. Since Na +and
OH-ions are "easy ions to remove, the addition of NaOH before the EDI
simply raises the ion load for the working section of the EDI, and the pH
returns to 7.0 by the end of the working section

Temperature
Pressure drop depends on temperature mostly due to the effect on the
viscosity of water
Pressure drop is proportional to viscosity
CONTD.

At 5oC the viscosity of water is 70% higher than at 25 oC

As temperature increases, the resistance of the stack will decrease
Keeping other parameters constant, stack resistance will change about 2% per
1oC
A lower voltage is required at higher temperatures to move the ions into the
concentrate
At low temperatures, a higher voltage will be needed to continue to split water
effectively, and move sluggish ions faster

Flow
There are two module pressure drops to consider
Feed to product
Concentrate inlet to outlet
CONTD.

The pressure drop will increase on each of these streams as the flow
to each is increased
Concentrate outlet is set between 5 10% of the EDI product flow
Pressure drop is nearly linear with flow
For a new module, typical pressure drop will be as low as 0.07 MPa
(10 psi) at the low end of the flow range or as high as 0.34 MPa (60
psi) at the high end of the flow range
In an EDI module, if the concentrate leaks into the product stream
then the product resistivity will suffer.
Product outlet pressure must be greater than concentrate outlet
pressure.
CONTD.

Feed conductivity
More feed ions will result in lower product quality
Reducing feed conductivity helps improve silica and CO 2removal
Increased feed conductivity increases current draw
Additional ions add a load that has two results
Depth of the working bed within the EDI module lengthenscausing the
polishing bed to shorten
Moving more ions takes more electrons. The current increase is not linear
because the current also moves water, which has been split
PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS

Feed Conductivity Equivalent (FCE)

Method of estimating the ionic load on a EDI
device
Measure EDI feed water conductivity (S/cm) Measured conductivity = 6 S/cm
Measure the ppm CO2 Measured CO2= 5 ppm as CO2
Measured SiO2= 0.5 ppm as SiO2
ppm as CO2x 2.79 = S/cm
FCE = 6 + (5 x 2.79) + (0.5 x
Measure the ppm SiO2 1.94) = 20.9 S/cm
ppm SiO2x 1.94 = S/cm
Add measured conductivity to CO2&
SiO2(S/cm)
CONTD.

DC Volts and Amps

Voltage (potential) causes current to flow
Current causes transfer of salt, regeneration of resin
Amount of current required proportional to product water flow, amount of salt
being removed
Use Faradays law to calculate current required
Faradays Law Product flow = 50 lpm
I = 1.31 (Q)(FCE)/(no. of cells)(eff) Feed = 5 S/cm + 3.75 ppm CO2
I = DC current, amps (per module) FCE = 5 + (3.75 x 2.79) = 15.5
Q = product flow rate, L/min/module
S/cm
I = 1.31(50 lpm)(15 S/cm)/(24
FCE = feed conductivity equivalent, S/cm cells)(10%)
eff = current efficiency, % (assume 10% current efficiency) = 4.2 amps per module
CONTD.
EDI Recovery
% Recovery (R) = (QP)(100)/(QP + QR)
QP = Product (Dilute) flow rate
QR = Reject (Concentrate) flow rate
Reject Flow
Reject = ((100 - R)/R) x product flow
R is the percent recovery
Product flow (QP) = 70 m3/h
Concentrate Flow (QR) = 7 m3/h
% Recovery = (70)/(70+7) x 100 =
90.1 %
Product flow = 50 m3/h
Recovery = 90%
Reject = ((100-90)/90) x 50 = 5.6
m3/h
WEIHAI POWER PLANT EDI
SYSTEM
EDI units = 2 units (24 modules each)
EDI per unit flow rate = 72 m3/hr
Voltage = 200 390 V
Current = 3 8 A
Recovery rate 90%
EDI water storage tank = 2000 m3 (2 Tanks)
EDI security filters = 1 m
CLEANING AND SANITIZATION
FOR EDI
Purpose of cleaning
Restore performance
Analyze the cause of performance drop

When to Clean?
50% increase in pressure drop without change in feed temperature or
flow
25% increase in electrical resistance (ohms) without change in feed
temperature
CONTD.

Chemical Purpose Removal

calcium scale, metal
Hydrochloric Acid Cleaning
oxides
Sodium
organic foulants from
Chloride/Sodium Cleaning
resin, membranes
Hydroxide
Cleaning &
Sodium Hydroxide biofilm and silica
sanitization
Sodium Cleaning &
organics, particles,
Percarbonate sanitization
biofilm and kills bacteria

Peracetic Acid Sanitization Kills bacteria

CONTD.

Multiple Cleanings
Do acid cleaning or brine flush before high pH cleaning such as caustic or
percarbonate
It is not necessary to brine between high pH cleanings such as percarbonate and
brine/caustic.
It is necessary to brine between low pH and high pH cleanings to avoid
weakening the second solution

General Considerations
A brine flush is required prior to sodium percarbonate and peracetic acid
Remove ions that could otherwise catalyze oxidation of the resin or membranes.
After cleaning, flush with water for 10 min without DC, then apply normal
current
CONTD.

HCl Cleaning Procedure

2% HCl - cleaning
30-60 minutes recirculation
Overnight soak for severe scaling
Yellow color may indicate iron fouling
Add acid as required to maintain pH < 0.5
Brine flush to drain
Water flush (10-30 minutes) without power
CONTD.

Brine/Caustic Cleaning Procedure

Brine flush to drain to remove hardness
Recirculate 5% brine / 1% caustic solution for 30-60 minutes
Water flush for 10-30 minutes
Look for yellow-brown color or foaming

Which cleaning is required for high pressure drop?

Perform brine flush - if this temporarily reduces pressure drop (shrinks resin)
but problem returns with operation, module may be irreversibly damaged by
chlorine (Chlorine causes de-crosslinking of ion exchange resin and subsequent
increase in water content of resin and increase in swelling. It is the swelling of
the resin in a confined space that causes the increase in pressure drop.)
Percarbonate clean for particle fouling or biofouling
FAQs

Q: Why must the feed water temperature be at least 41 oF (5oC)?

A: The electrical resistance of the EDI system increases with decreasing
temperature. The power supplies for EDI systems are sized to
compensate for this down to a temperature of 41 oF (5oC) below that
temperature the performance may decline due to DC voltage
limitations.

Q: How long does the EDI System take to come back up to

quality after being in stand-by?
A: Typically a EDI System will return to quality within a few seconds of
starting up from stand-by. It takes much longer however, to come back
to quality after cleaning or sanitization, several hours or overnight.
CONTD.

Q: What is the recommended frequency of sanitization for EDI

Systems?
A: The frequency of sanitization varies greatly with the customer's
bacteria specifications and the system design. Some systems are never
sanitized but typical frequencies for systems producing Purified Water
range from weekly to quarterly.

Q: What is the typical life of the EDI resin and membrane cell
packs?
A: Three to five years is considered a normal life for the cell packs. The
useful life obtained at any given site will be a function of the raw water
quality, the pre-treatment design and how well the system is monitored
and maintained.
ADVANTAGES OF EDI

Simple and continuous operation

No regeneration chemicals required
Cost effective operation and maintenance
Requires less space
Produces high purity water at constant flow
Provides complete removal of dissolved inorganic particles
In combination with reverse osmosis pre-treatment, it removes
more than 99.9% of ions from the water
LIMITATIONS OF EDI

Requires purification pre-treatment

EDI is just as sensitive to the chlorine as thin-film reverse

osmosis (RO) processes

Most EDI devices have a 1 ppm hardness limit

Not cost-effective for removal of large amounts of CO2