Nucleic Acids and Protein

Synthesis
 Nucleotides and ATP.
Nucleotides: These are smaller molecules which make
up DNA or RNA. They consist of a nitrogen containing
bases which could be ( Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine,
Thymine or Uracil), a pentose sugar (this sugar might
be a ribose in the case of RNA or deoxyribose in DNA)
and a phosphate group.
ATP: it is known as a phosphorylated nucleotide
because it consists of 3 phosphate groups. ATP which
stands for Adenosine Triphosphate. Adenosine is a
ribose and the base Adenine. It could be called as AMP
if it consists of 1 phosphate group (monophosphate), or
ADP if it consists of 2 phosphate groups(diphosphate).
DNA and RNA
 Base pairing
DNA is a double helix, made of two polynucleotides lying
side by side, running in opposite directions, they are
antiparallel strands. The two strands are held together by
hydrogen bonding which is between the bases. A purine
always pairs with a pyrimidine, Adenine with Thymine (or
Uracil in mRNA), Guanine with Cytosine. This is known as
complementary base pairing which is important because
they can separate from one another and each can serve
as a template for building a new partner. Thus, DNA
replication is semi-conservative, with each of the two
daughter DNA molecules having one old strand derived
from the parent and one newly made strand.
The complementary base pairing results in the two
daughter DNA molecules being identical.
Purines are double ring structure and pyrimidines are a
single ring structure.
 DNA replication
DNA replication takes place during interphase of the cell cycle.
The DNA replicates by a process known as semi-conservative
replication.
Semi-conservative replication is the process by which each new
DNA has 1 old strand and 1 new one.Each strand of DNA acts as
a template, in which the new DNA molecule made has one old
strand complementary base pairing with the new strand.
It all begins when the DNA unwinds as the hydrogen bonds
between the bases break, in the nucleus however are nucleotides
to which two extra phosphates are added making them active.
Each of the bases of the activated nucleotides pairs up with its
complementary base on each of the old DNA strands. There is an
enzyme known as DNA polymerase which links together the
phosphate and deoxyribose groups of adjacent nucleotides. The
two extra phosphates are broken off and released into the
nucleus. This is how the new strand is made which bond to the
old strand by hydrogen bonding between the bases.
 DNA controls protein
synthesis
A DNA molecule is a polynucleotide
coding for a protein, precisely a
polypeptide is coded for by a gene.
Gene: is a sequence of nucleotides
that forms part of a DNA molecule.
Gene Mutation: is a change in the
sequence of nucleotides that may
result in an altered polypeptide.
 Sickle cell anaemia
Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, which is
made of 4 polypeptide chains. Two are alpha
globin while the other two are beta globin. The
gene which codes for the amino acid sequence
in B polypeptides is not the same for everyone.
Usually it begins with the amino acid sequence
having Glutamine as the 6 th amino acid this is
normal allele for the gene, while some people
have the base sequence CTT replaced with CAT
thus the sixth amino acid becomes Valine this
is the sickle cell allele for the gene. This type
of mutation is substitution.
 Protein Synthesis:
Transcription.
The first stage in protein synthesis is
Transcription. In this stage a single strand of RNA
known as messenger RNA is made. The DNA
molecule unwinds and a sense strand acts as a
template. The same process that happens in DNA
replication occurs where activated nucleotides
complementary base pair with the sense strand.
An enzyme known as RNA polymerase helps to
form the sugar phosphate backbone. The single
strand which is now known as mRNA leaves the
nucleus through the nuclear pores.
 Translation
There are many transfer RNA molecules in the cytoplasm and each
one is specific for an amino acid so there must be 20 different types of
tRNA. Each tRNA molecule has two sites one having the triplet of
nitrogen bases known as anticodons and the other is the site of
attachement of an amino acid.
Now lets return to the mRNA strand that leaves to the cytoplasm and
attach itself to a ribosome. A ribosome has a small and a large
subunit, and is made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein. The mRNA
attaches to the small subunit and exposes its codons. While the tRNA
molecule attaches to the large subunit and complementary base pairs
using its anticodons with the mRNA codons.
An amino acid is formed at the end of the tRNA molecule. Many tRNA
molecules attach themselves at a time to the ribosome forming amino
acids where a peptide bond is formed making a polypeptide chain.
This reaction is catalysed by an enzyme known peptidyl transferase.
The reaction takes place until a stop codon is exposed.