31-1

Introduction
Special senses
Sensory receptors located in head
Nose smell
Tongue taste
Eyes vision
Ears hearing and equilibrium
Touch is a generalized sense
Stimulus nervous system brain response

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Nose and Sense of Smell

Olfactory receptors
Chemoreceptors
respond to changes in
chemical
concentrations

Chemicals must be
dissolved in mucus

Located in the
olfactory organ

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Smell Sensation
Activation of smell receptors
information sent to olfactory nerves

that send the information along

olfactory bulbs and tracts

to different areas of the cerebrum;

cerebrum interprets the information as a

particular type of smell

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Nose and Sense of Smell (cont.)

Sensory Adaptation
Chemical can stimulate receptors for
limited time

Receptors fatigue and stop responding

to chemical

No longer smell odor

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Apply Your Knowledge

You notice an odor coming from a patient when you

enter the exam room. Why would the patient not
be able to smell it?

ANSWER: After a few minutes, smell receptors undergo

sensory adaptation and no longer respond to the chemical,
and the patient can no longer smell the odor.

Very
Good!
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Tongue and Sense of Taste

Gustatory receptors located on
taste buds
Taste buds
Location
Papillae of the tongue
Roof of mouth
} fewer than on tongue
Walls of throat

Tongu
e

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Tongue and Sense of Taste (cont.)

Taste cells and supporting
structures
On taste buds
Supporting structures fill in space
Taste cells
Chemoreceptors
Chemicals in food and drink must be
dissolved in saliva to activate
Tongu
e

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Tongue and Sense of Taste (cont.)

Taste sensation Umami
4 primary 5th basic taste
Sweet tip Glutamic acid
Sour sides
Salty tip and Spicy foods
sides
Bitter back Activate pain
receptors
Interpreted by brain
as spicy
Tongu
e

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Bac
k

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Tongue and Sense of Taste (cont.)

Taste sensation

Activation of Cranial
taste cells nerves

Gustatory cortex of cerebrum

interprets information

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Apply Your Knowledge

What are the four primary taste sensations and
where are their corresponding taste cells
located?
ANSWER: The four primary taste sensations are:
Sweet concentrated on the tip of the tongue
Sour concentrated on the sides of the tongue
Salty concentrated on the tip and sides of the tongue
Bitter concentrated on the back of the tongue

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Eye and Sense of Sight (cont.)

Outer sclera
White of the eye
Protects the eye
Sense receptors
Cornea
Front of eye
Window that allows
light into eye
Bends light as it enters
Eye

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Eye and Sense of Sight (cont.)

Middle choroid
Contains blood Ciliary body
vessels Muscles
Iris Controls the shape
Colored part of eye of the lens
Muscle that Lens
contracts and Posterior to iris
relaxes to open or Focuses light on
close pupil
retina
Regulates the Accommodation
amount of light that
enters the eye Eye

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Eye and Sense of Sight (cont.)

Inner retina
Visual receptors
Rods Cones
Sensitive to light Function in bright
Will function in dim light
light limited Sensitive to color
night vision and provide sharp
images
Do not provide
sharp image or
detect color Optic disc optic
nerve enters retina
Eye

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Eye and Sense of Sight (cont.)

Chambers of the eye
Anterior chamber
Front of lens
Filled with aqueous humor nourishes and
bathes anterior eye
Posterior chamber
Behind lens
Contains vitreous humor maintains shape of
eyeball and holds retina in place

Eye

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Back

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Visual Accessory Organs

Eyelids
Eye orbits Skin, muscle, and
Eye sockets connective tissue
Blinking
Form a protective
Prevents surface from
shell around the drying out
eyes Keeps foreign material
out of eye
Eyebrows protect eyelash visitors
eyes ET has arrived

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Visual Accessory Organs (cont.)

Conjunctivas Lacrimal
Mucous membranes apparatus
Line inner surfaces Lacrimal glands
of eyelids Lateral edge of
eyeballs
Produce tears
Nasolacrimal
ducts
Medial aspect of
eyeballs
Drain tears into
nose

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Visual Accessory Organs (cont.)

Extrinsic eye muscles
Six per eye move the eyeball
Superiorly
Inferiorly
Laterally
Medially
Guiness

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Visual Pathways
Eye works like a camera
Light enters the eye through the lens
Refraction cornea, lens, and fluids bend
light to focus it on the retina

Image upside
Image turned
down on retina
right-side up
Retina converts Occipital
light to nerve Optic Optic lobe of
impulse nerve chiasm cerebrum

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Apply Your Knowledge

Matching: ANSWER:
G Middle layer of eye
___ A. Lacrimal glands
H Eye sockets
___ B. Aqueous humor
___
F Control shape of lens C. Retina
D Outer layer of eye
___ D. Sclera
B Anterior chamber
___ E. Vitreous humor
A Tears
___ F. Ciliary body
I Bending of light
___ G. Choroid
E Posterior chamber
___ H. Orbits Out of
C Inner layer of eye
___ I. Refraction
Sight!
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The Aging Eye

Eyelids may droop Lens denser and more
Quality and quantity rigid
of tears decrease Lens yellows
Conjunctiva thins and Retinal changes vision
eyes may become fuzzy
dryer Changes in ability of eye
to adapt to light
Cornea yellows, fat
deposits around it Impaired night vision
Decreased peripheral
Brown spots on sclera
vision; depth perception
Pupils become Floaters or flashes of light
smaller

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Apply Your Knowledge

What vision changes can occur in the elderly
patient?

ANSWER: An elderly patient may have difficulty seeing

because of drooping eyelids. Focusing may be more
difficult because less light enters the eye. He may have
difficulty distinguishing colors due to yellowing of the
lens. Vision may be fuzzy because of changes in the
retina. Night vision can become impaired. The patient
may see floaters or sparks.

Nice job!
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Vision Testing
Professionals include
Ophthalmologist medical doctor who
is an eye specialist

Optometrist provides vision

screening and diagnostic testing

Opticians fills vision prescriptions for

glasses and contacts

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Common Diseases and Disorders

Disorder/Disease Description

Amblyopia Lazy eye; one eye is not used regularly; poor

depth perception; often concurrent with
strabismus
Astigmatism Cornea or lens has abnormal shape; blurred
images

Cataracts Opaque structures in lens prevent light from

passing through; vision fuzzy

Conjunctivitis Pink eye; highly contagious bacterial infection

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Common Diseases and Disorders (cont.)

Disorder/Disease Description

Dry eye syndrome Common problem; decreased production of oil

in tears

Entropion Inversion of lower eyelid

Glaucoma Increase in intraocular pressure due to a buildup

of aqueous humor in anterior chamber

Hyperopia Farsightedness- can see distant objects clearly, but

objects nearby may be blurry

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Common Diseases and Disorders (cont.)

Disorder/Disease Description

Macular Progressive disease; inadequate blood supply

degeneration to retina; most common cause of vision loss;
affects people over 50 years

Myopia Nearsightedness-can see close objects clearly, but

objects farther away appear blurry

Nystagmus Rapid, involuntary eye movements

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Common Diseases and Disorders (cont.)

Disorder/Disease Description

Presbyopia Loss of lens elasticity; develops with age

Retinal detachment Layers of retina separate; medical

emergency

Strabismus Misalignment of eyes

Convergent Crossed eyes; one or both eyes turn inward
Wall eye; one or both eyes turn outward
Divergent

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The Ear
External ear
Auricle (pinna)
Collects sound waves
External auditory canal
Guides sound wave to tympanic membrane
Tympanic membrane
Separates external canal and middle ear
Vibrates when sound hits it

Ear

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The Ear (cont.)

Eustachian tube
Middle ear
Connects middle ear
Ear ossicles to throat
Malleus Equalizes pressure
Incus on eardrum
Stapes
Oval window
Ossicles vibrate in
Separates middle ear
response to from inner ear
vibration of
tympanic
membrane
Ear

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The Ear (cont.)

Inner ear labyrinth of
communicating chambers
Semicircular canals detect balance
of the body
Vestibule equilibrium
Cochlea
Hearing receptors
Organ of Corti organ of hearing

Ear

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Equilibrium
Head movement causes fluid in
semicircular canals and
vestibule to move
Equilibrium receptors transmit
information along vestibular
nerves to cerebrum
Cerebrum determines if body needs to
make adjustments

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Sense of Hearing
Sound waves collected
Waves cause tympanic membrane
to vibrate
Ossicles amplify vibrations, which
enter inner ear
Movement of hairs lining cochlea trigger
nerve impulses
Impulses are transmitted by auditory nerve
to the brain for interpretation
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Sense of Hearing (cont.)

Bone conduction
Alternative pathway
Bypasses external
and middle ear
directly to inner
Useful in
determining cause
of hearing problem

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Apply Your Knowledge

Matching: ANSWER:
E Pinna
___ A. Organ of Corti
C Malleus, incus, and stapes B. Cerumen
___
F Hearing receptors
___ C. Ear ossicles
G Inner ear
___ D. Tympanic membrane
A Organ of hearing
___ E. Auricle
B Earwax
___ F. Cochlea
D Eardrum
___ G. Labyrinth
H Detect balance of body
___ H. Semicircular canals

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The Aging Ear

External ear larger / earlobe longer
Cerumen dryer and prone to impaction
Ear canal narrower
Eardrum shrinks and appears dull and
gray
Ossicles do not move as freely
Semicircular canals less sensitive to
changes in position affects balance

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Apply Your Knowledge

What problem with the aging ear makes the
elderly more prone to falls?

ANSWER: The semicircular canals become less sensitive

to change in position, which affects balance. This
problem with equilibrium results in increased chance of
falls in the elderly.

Great
Answer!

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Hearing Loss
Symptom of a disease, not a normal part of
aging
Conductive hearing loss
Interruption in
transmission to inner ear
Causes
Obstruction of ear canal
Infection of middle ear
Reduced movement of
stirrup
31-39
Sensorineural hearing
loss
Sound waves not perceived
by brain as sound
Causes
Hereditary
Repeated exposure to
loud noises/viral infections
Side effect of medication
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Hearing Loss (cont.)

Noise pollution causes damage to sensitive
cells in cochlea
Working with the hearing-impaired patient
Speak at a reasonable volume, in clear, low-pitched
volumes
Face the person; use hand gestures, if appropriate
Do not overemphasize lip movements
Have patient repeat message to verify understanding
Treat hearing-impaired patients with patience and
respect

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Common Diseases and Disorders

Disorder/Disease Description
Cerumen impaction Build up of wax within external auditory canal

Hearing loss Deafness

Mnire's disease Disturbance in equilibrium characterized by

vertigo and tinnitus

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Common Diseases and Disorders

Disorder/Disease Description
Otitis Inflammation of the ear
Otitis externa Swimmers ear
Otitis media Middle ear infection; common infection
Otitis interna Labyrinthitis; inner ear infection
Osteosclerosis Immobilization of the stapes; common cause
of conductive hearing loss

Presbycusis Hearing loss due to aging process

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Apply Your Knowledge

True or False: ANSWER:

F An audiologist is a physician that specializes in ear health.

___ otologist
F Otitis media is also called swimmers ear.
___ externa
T Presbycusis is hearing loss due to the aging process.
___
F Vertigo is ringing in the ears.
___ Tinnitus

T Otitis interna is an inflammation of the labyrinth.

___
T Mnire's disease is characterized by disturbances in equilibrium.
___
T Otosclerosis is the immobilization of the stapes.
___
F Tinnitus is dizziness.
___ Vertigo

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The End

Every closed eye

is not sleeping,
and every open
eye is not
seeing.
~ Bill Cosby

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