Basic Plant Cycle

Basic Plant Cycle

In this section, we will discuss the
individual systems that combine to
form the basic Power Plant cycle.
Basic Plant Cycle
Upon completion of this section,
you will be able to perform the
following:

Page 1.
Basic Plant Cycle
Basic Plant Cycle
The term closed-loop system indicates
that the same water is converted to steam
and condensed for reuse.
As an example, use a 100-gallon water
tank, with a leak rate of 1 gallon of water
per hour. Each hour, 1 gallon of water must
be added to the tank to maintain its
capacity at 100 gallons. A closed-loop
system is very similar to our 100-gallon
tank.
System Losses
Soot blowing
Drains and warming lines
Boiler blowdown
Sample line drains
Boiler stack heat
Turbine condenser latent heat of
vaporization

System Losses
Of the losses listed above, heat loss
out the boiler stack has the greatest
affect on boiler efficiency, but the
greatest loss in most Power Plants is
the latent heat of vaporization that is
lost in the turbine condenser.

Can you think of others?

Plant Cycle Major

Components and
Systems

Plant Cycle Major

Components and
Systems
Condenser and hotwell
Boiler feedwater system
Boiler water/steam cycle
Plant Cycle Major
Components and
Systems
Electrical generation
Condensate system
Turbine steam system
Condenser and Hotwell
The condenser is a shell-and-tube
type heat exchanger. It creates a
low-pressure area into which
turbine steam may exhaust and
condense. Steam is condensed,
collected in the hotwell, and
pumped (recirculated) back
through the system.
Condenser and Hotwell
Condensate System
The condensate system performs
one or more of the three basic
functions.

Heating
Deaerating
Cleaning
Condensate System
Heating
The feedwater heater is one of the
basic components in many
condensate systems. Condensate
systems may have one or more of
these, depending on size and
design.
Cleaning
In-line condensate polishers are
located in many condensate
systems. Polishers are used to
clean condensate by removing
harmful minerals.
Deaerating
Deaeration, the removal of air and
non-condensable gases from the
condensate, is performed in the
deaerator. The deaerator is an
open-type heater located near
what is considered to be the end
of the condensate system.
Boiler Feedwater
System
Although the boiler feedwater system
is given a different name, the same
water that was pumped through the
condensate system is pumped through
the feedwater system. The water is
still condensate; however, it is now to
be supplied (pumped) to the boiler
and renamed boiler feedwater.
 To Economizer

Economizer
Inlet
NRV

HP Heater 8
Outlet
(3-Way Valve)
Deaerator

HP Heater 8

HP Heater 8
Inlet
(3-Way Valve)
Feedwater
Storage Tank

HP Heater 7
Outlet
(3-way Valve)

HP Heater 7

Booster Pump

Motor M M M HP Heater 6

Boiler Feed Pump HP Heater 6

Inlet
(3-Way Valve)

Feed
Regulating
Valve
(2)
Boiler Feedwater
System
Fluid entering the deaerating
heater is condensate and steam,
and the fluid stored in the
deaerator storage tank is
condensate. The feedwater
system begins at this point.
Boiler Feedwater
System
In systems that use feedwater
heaters in the condensate and
feedwater systems, the heaters in
the feedwater system are referred
to as high-pressure heaters.
Boiler Feedwater
System
As an example, condensate
pressure usually ranges between
150 and 450 psig, while the
feedwater system pressure ranges
between 900 and 5000 psig.
Boiler Water Cycle
Feedwater enters the boiler at the
economizer in boilers that have an
economizer. Not all boilers have
economizers, and in those that do not,
feedwater enters the boiler at the
boiler steam drum. The economizer is
located in the flue gas path of the
boiler and performs two important
functions.
Boiler Water Cycle
First, the water is heated by the
thermal energy of the flue gas
before the gas exits the boiler.

Secondly, the flue gas temperature

is lowered, reducing the effect on
the environment.
Boiler Water Cycle
Boiler Steam System
After steam and water are
mechanically separated, the steam
is routed out the top of the drum
and directed to the superheater
sections of the boiler, with the first
section being the primary
superheater.
Boiler Steam System
Steam is directed from the primary
superheater to the secondary
superheater where additional
temperature and thermal energy are
added to the steam. Steam at proper
temperature and pressure is directed
to the steam distribution system and
turbine through the main steam lines.
Boiler Steam System
Turbine Steam System
Steam flows from the boiler to a steam
distribution header that in turn, supplies
high-pressure steam to the turbines and
to processes within the Power Plant.
Inside the turbine, the thermal energy
contained in the steam is converted into
mechanical energy to drive the turbine
and generator. As steam passes through
the turbine, its temperature and pressure
are greatly reduced.
Turbine Steam System
Turbine Steam System
Electrical Generation
Located at the end and connected to
the turbine is the generator. The
mechanical energy that rotates the
turbine is also turning the generator.
The generator is basically a large
electromagnet. It receives an outside
source of current from the excitation
system. By varying the excitation and
the steam flow to the turbine electrical
output of the generator is controlled.
Electrical Generation
Increasing the excitation to the generator
increases the strength of the generator
field, which requires an increase in steam
flow to drive the turbine and generator. As
the generator rotor turns, electron flow
occurs in the stator. Electrons (electricity)
flow from the generator stator to the Power
Plant electrical distribution system. The
electrical energy distributed to the system is
the result of all the energy conversions that
occurred during the Power Plant operation.
Power Plant Heat
Balance
Btu (British Thermal Unit) the
amount of energy required to
increase the temperature of one
pound of water 1F at atmospheric
pressure at sea level.
Enthalpy (Btu/lb) the total heat
content of one pound of a
substance.
Power Plant Heat
Balance
First Law of Thermodynamics
energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only converted from
one form to another.
Latent Heat of Vaporization
the amount of heat that must be
transferred to a substance to
change it from a liquid to a gas.
Power Plant Heat
Balance
Saturation the amount of heat
energy a substance can contain at a
given phase.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

heat energy by itself cannot pass
from a lower to a higher
temperature body.
Power Plant Heat
Balance
Specific Heat the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of
a specific amount of material by a
specified number of degrees.

Specific Volume the space

occupied by one pound of material.

Power Plant Heat

Balance
Sub cooled temperature that is
less than the saturation
temperature. by one pound of
material.

Properties of Steam and

Water
Solid (ice) water below 32 F at
atmospheric pressure.
Liquid water between 32 F and
212 F at atmospheric pressure.
Vapor (Steam) water above 212
F at atmospheric pressure.
Specific Heat
Specific heat, when measured in
BTUs, is the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of
one pound of a substance 1 degree
Fahrenheit. Specific heat is
measured in units of BTUs per
pound per degree Fahrenheit
(Btu/lb/F).
Specific Heat
A formula for determining the
amount of heat needed to raise a
specific amount of water a specific
number of degrees would be as
follows: (T = temperature and H
= heat)

Specific Heat
Use this formula to find the
amount of heat needed to change
20 pounds of water from 50F to
75F.
Specific Volume
Specific volume is the measurement of
the amount of space occupied by one
pound of a substance. Specific volume
is measured in cubic feet per pound
(ft3/lb). A cube that is three inches
square is equal to the amount of space
that one pound of water occupies. The
volume of the water in the cube would
be equal to approximately 0.016 ft 3.
Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the sum of the total
heat content of one pound of a
substance, shown as Btu/lb. The
enthalpy of water can be
calculated if the temperature and
pressure of the water are known,
but these calculations are time
consuming.
Three States of Water
Solid (ice) - Water below 32 F at
atmospheric pressure.
Liquid - Water between 32 and
212 F at atmospheric pressure.
Gas (steam) - Water vapor at 212
F and atmospheric pressure.
Latent Heat of
Vaporization
Latent heat is the amount of heat
that must be transferred to a
substance to change it from a
liquid state to a gas state. When
water at atmospheric pressure
boils, it changes state from water
at 212F to steam at 212F. The
temperature remains the same.
Latent Heat of
Vaporization
Latent Heat of Fusion
The latent heat of fusion is the
amount of heat that must be
transferred to a substance to
change it from a solid state to a
liquid state. When ice melts, it
changes state from ice at 32F, to
water at 32F. The temperature
remains the same.
Steam Tables
Table 1 - Saturated Steam: Temperature
Table Gives the values for specific volume,
enthalpy, and entropy in relation to temperature.

Table 2 - Saturated Steam: Pressure Table

Gives the values for specific volume, enthalpy
and entropy in relation to pressure.

Table 3 - Superheated Steam Gives the

values for superheated steam relative to
temperature and pressure.
Steam Tables
The first two tables contain values of
properties for saturated fluids, both water
and steam. Table 1 is called Saturated
Steam: Temperature Table and Table
2 is Saturated Steam: Pressure
Table. Both tables contain the same
information, however, the difference being
Table 1 is used if you know the saturated
fluid temperature and Table 2 is used if
pressure is the known value.
Superheated Steam
Tables
Table 3 gives the properties of
superheated steam and repeats
the properties of saturated water
and saturated steam presented in
Tables 1 and 2.
STEAM TABLE
EXAMPLE ONE
Assume that a pump discharges water at 110F
and 270 psia. Since both temperature and
pressure of the water are known, either
saturated steam table can be used to find the
properties of the water at the discharge of the
pump.

Table 1

Table 2
STEAM TABLE
EXAMPLE TWO
Table 3 Enthalpy
Using a hypothetical boiler to
demonstrate use of Table 3, find
the enthalpy of steam at a given
pressure and temperature. Boiler
pressure is 900 psia and
superheater outlet temperature is
900F.
Table 3 Degrees
Superheat
The degrees of superheat
contained in the steam is
determined by the temperature
listed in the column under 900F
that coincides with the SH row for
900 psia. The degrees of
superheat are 368.05. F.
STEAM TABLES
EXERCISES
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is the transmission
of heat energy. Usually thought of
as the flow of heat energy from
one substance to another, heat
transfer plays a central role in
most energy conversion processes.
Conduction
The internal energy of substance
depends upon molecular motion within
the substance. As the temperature of
a substance increases, the molecular
motion increased and thus the internal
energy increases. Heat is transferred
by conduction from molecule to
molecule within a substance or
between touching substances.
Conduction
Conduction
The basic relationship for heat transfer
by conduction through a wall can be
written as follows:
Q = kA(T1 T2 )

Q = the rate of heat transfer (BTU/hr)

k = thermal conductivity (BTU/hr-ft-F)
w = wall thickness (ft)
Conduction
Often the equation for heat transfer
by conduction is written in a slightly
different form than previously
shown. The quantity k/x is replaced
with a new parameter, U, the heat
transfer coefficient. In this case, the
equation becomes

Q = UAT
Conduction
q = the rate of heat transfer
(BTU/hr)
U = the overall heat transfer
coefficient (BTU/hr-ft-F)
A = the surface area of heat
transfer (ft2)
T = temperature difference (F)

Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat
by motion and mixing of a fluid. It
usually occurs between a solid and
a fluid (gas or liquid) by a
combination of molecular
conduction and fluid motion.
Convection
Radiation
Radiation
Radiant heat transfer, unlike conduction
or convection, requires no intervening
medium, either solid or fluid. Radiant
heat transfer is, therefore, the only way
to transfer heat energy through a
vacuum. Examples of radiant heat
transfer are the transmission of the suns
heat to the earth, heat that radiates from
a fireplace, or infrared heaters
Combustion Theory
Combustion is defined as the rapid
chemical combination of oxygen
with the combustible elements of a
fuel. Combustible elements are
those elements that combine with
oxygen. The three basic elements
needed for combustion are fuel,
oxygen, and heat.
Combustion Theory
Requirements
Time
for
Complete Combustion
Temperature

Turbulence
Fuel Characteristics
The fuel supplies carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and sulfur (8),
which combine with oxygen to
produce heat.
Fuel Characteristics
The fuel supplies carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and sulfur (8),
which combine with oxygen to
produce heat.
Coal is pulverized
Natural gas requires no special
preparation
Combustion Air
Enough air must be supplied to provide
all the oxygen needed for complete
combustion. The theoretical amount of
air required to burn a fuel is determined
by combustion calculations. The
theoretical amount of air, referred to as
theoretical air or stoichiometric air is
the amount required to burn all the fuel
when the two are mixed perfectly
Combustion Air
Coal 10 - 40%

Oil 8 - 15%
Natural gas 5 - 10%
Combustion
Air
In a gas turbine, the fuel is mixed with compressed
air in the combustion chamber and delivered at a
high pressure to the combustors. Only a relatively
small fraction of the air is supplied to the
combustor to provide oxygen for combustion in
comparison to a conventional boiler, however. The
remaining air is used for cooling the combustors
and turbine blading. The air used for combustion
enters the combustion zone through metering holes
that are sized to admit the proper amount of air for
complete combustion. The large amount of excess
air used in gas turbines tends to reduce their
efficiency.
Combustion Air
Fortunately, when a gas turbine is
used in a combined cycle with a
HRSG, it is possible to recover
much of the heat in the exhaust
gas.
Combustion Air

Combustion
Air "combustion
One of the most important
products," oxygen, is not really a combustion
product because it does not enter into the
chemical reactions of combustion. If a fuel
were burned completely with the theoretical
air, there would be no oxygen in the
products of combustion. In real combustion
processes, more air is supplied to the
combustion process than is used to burn the
fuel. As a result, there is oxygen in the
products of combustion (the flue gas).
Combustion Air
If fuel is not burned completely,
additional products of combustion
are:
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Unburned Fuel
Carbon Particles
Combustion Airunburned
Formation of CO and fuel
can result from:
The fuel not being properly mixed
with air
The temperature being too low to
allow fuel to burn completely
The fuel particles being too large to
burn (inadequate mixing)
Undesirable Products of
Sulfur Oxides
Combustion
NOx
Unburned Fuel
Carbon Monoxide
Fly Ash
Heating Value of Fuel
The heating value of fuel is a
parameter that is necessary to
determine how much fuel must be
burned to produce a given amount
of heat for power or steam. The
heating values of fuels are usually
determined by testing.
Energy Losses
In an ideal situation, all the chemical
energy in fuel would be converted into
electrical energy. However, this does
not happen since a great deal of
energy is lost in the Power plant cycle.
The amount of electrical energy that is
produced by a Power Plant is much
less than the amount of chemical
energy used to produce it
Energy Losses
Some major ways in which energy
escapes a Power Plant are as follows:

Flue Gas
Circulating Water
Incomplete combustion
Heat loss to environment
Energy Losses
Flue Gas

Circulating Water

Incomplete Combustion

Incomplete Combustion
Heat Rate
The British thermal unit (Btu) is defined as
the heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1
degree Fahrenheit.

Heat rate is a method of showing the
performance of a Power Plant. Power
Plants maintain a continuous record of heat
rate as a measure of efficiency of operation
Incomplete Combustion
Heat Rate
Heat Rate Calculations

The gross heat rate is usually

calculated by the following formula:

GHR = (Quantity of Fuel x
Heating Value)/(Generation x Time)

Heat Rate
Heat Rate Calculations

The gross heat rate is usually

calculated by the following formula:

GHR = (Quantity of Fuel x
Heating Value)/(Generation x Time)