QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

DESIGNS

Professor Lisa High

University of Windsor
 QUALITATIVE PARADIGM

Naturalistic paradigm
Soft science
Focus: usually broad
Holistic
Subjective
Reasoning: dialectic, inductive
Basis of knowing: meaning, discovery
Shared interpretation
Communication and observation
Basic element of analysis: words
Individual interpretations
Uniqueness
 The Logic of Qualitative Research
Based on holistic view & following beliefs:
(1) There is no single reality reality is based on
perceptions it is different for each person
changes over time
(2) What we know has meaning only within a given
situation or context

The reasoning process in qualitative research

involves:
- perceptually putting pieces together to make wholes
 What is the concept of
Gestalt?
This concept is closely related to wholism and
proposes that a particular phenomenon is
organized into a cluster of linked ideas, a
gestalt.

Disadvantage:
- understand a phenomenon through the
interpretation of a particular theory
Experiencing Gestalt Change
First to deconstruct your original sedimented
views

Reconstruct another view

Focus on a different view point or looking at

something differently (a different lens)

To increase openness
 Philosophy and Qualitative
Research
Frameworks are not used the same as in
quantitative
The goal is not theory testing
Each study should be guided by a particular
philosophical stance

Philosophical Stance assists to:

(a) directs the question(s) that are asked
(b) the observations which are made
(c) the interpretation of data
DESIGN OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES
Specify design before data collection
Adhere to the design after study started
Study design evolves over time
Researcher Decisions include:
(a) How to obtain
(b) From whom to collect
(c) How to schedule
(d) How long
 Design of Qualitative Research

EMERGENT DESIGN
A design that emerges as the researcher makes
ongoing decisions reflecting what has already been
learned

Lincoln & Cuba (1985) not researcher laziness or

sloppiness but rather desire to base inquiry on
realities and viewpoints of those under study
Key: realities and viewpoints that are NOT KNOWN or
UNDERSTOOD AT THE OUTSET
 Characteristics of Qualitative
Research Design
Flexible, elastic, capable of adjusting
Merging together of various data collection strategies
Holistic, understand the whole
Research intensely involved
Research to become the research instrument
Requires ongoing analysis of data to formulate
subsequent strategies and to determine when field
work is done

What is Bricolage?
Qualitative Designs

PHASES of a Qualitative Study:

(1) Orientation an overview

(2) Focused exploration
(3) Confirmation and closure

(Lincoln & Cuba, 1985)

 Qualitative Design Features
Control over the independent variable

Type of group comparisons

Number of data collection points

Occurrence of the independent & dependent

variables
 Qualitative Research Traditions
Four traditions described by nurse
researcher:

(1) Ethnography
(2) Phenomenology
(3) Grounded Theory
(4) Historical Research
 ETHNOGRAPHY
Research tradition in anthropology
Provides a framework for studying meanings,
patterns, and experiences defined by a cultural
group in a holistic fashion

Ethnoscience (Cognitive Anthropology):

focuses on the cognitive world of a culture
semantic rules and shared meanings that
shape behavoir
 ETHNOGRAPHY
Focus: the culture of a group of people
Assumption: every human group evolves a
culture that guides members view of the world
and the way they structure their experiences

At times referred to as macroethnography: -

able to study broadly defined cultures

At times referred to as microethnography

able to study cultures using a very narrow focus
 Ethnography Contd
Aim: to learn from rather than study
members of a cultural group

Two perspectives:
(1) Emic insiders view, the way the members
of a culture envision their world
(2) Etic - outsiders interpretation of the
experiences of that culture strive to get at
cultural experiences that members do not talk
about or may not even be consciously aware
Ethnography Contd
Extensive field work
Typically labor intensive
Time consuming

Researcher as instrument - to study a culture

it requires a certain level of intimacy needs
to be developed become one within the
culture
Ethnography Contd
Three types of information:
(1) Cultural behavoir
(2) Cultural artifacts
(3) Cultural speech

Sources of information in-depth interviews,

records, charts, observations and other types
of physical evidence are used
Ethnography Contd
Products of this research includes:
- rich and holistic descriptions
- describe normative behavoir and social patterns
- Information about health beliefs and health practices
- Facilitates an understanding of behavoirs affecting health
and illness
- Leininger coined the phrase:

ethnonursing research the study and analysis of local

or indigneous peoples viewpoints, beliefs and practices
about nursing care behavoir and processes of designated
cultures
 Phenomenology
Phenomenology is both philosophy and a
research method
Purpose of this research method is to describe
experiences as they are lived to capture the
lived experience

Developed by Husserl & Heidegger an

approach to thinking about peoples life
experiences.
 Phenomenology Contd
Philosophical Orientation
- view the person as integral with the environment
- World is shaped by the self and also shapes the
self
- The person is a self within a body
- Person is referred to as embodied our bodies
provide the possibility for the concrete actions of
self in the world
- The body, the world and the concerns, unique to
each person, are the context within which that
person can be understood
- being in time
 Phenomenology Contd

A phenomenological researcher asks the question:

What is the essence of this phenomena as
experienced by these people and what does it
mean?

Assumption: there is an essence

an essential variant structure
Investigates subjective phenomena

Belief that truths about reality are grounded in

peoples lived experiences

 Phenomenology Contd
Two Schools of Thought:

(1) Descriptive phenomenology

(1) Interpretive phenomenology (hermeneutics)

 Phenomenology Contd
Four aspects of the lived experience:

(1) SPATIALITY

(2) CORPOREALITY

(3) TEMPORALITY

(4) RELATIONALITY
 Phenomenology Contd
Phenomenologists believe human existence is
meaningful and interesting
Being in the world or Embodiment is a concept that
acknowledges peoples physical ties to their world
People:
THINK
SEE
HEAR
FEEL
CONCIOUS OF THEIR BODIES INTERACTION WITH THE
WORLD
 Phenomenology Contd

Data sources:
In-depth conversations
Researcher helps the participant to describe lived
experiences without leading the discussion
Two or more interviews/conversations are needed
Usually small number of participants (ie. 10 or
less)
May use participation, observation and
introspective reflection
 Phenomenology Contd
Methodological Interpretations Used:

(a) BRACKETING

(b) INTUITING
 Grounded Theory

Is an inductive research technique developed

for health-related topics by Glaser & Strauss
(1967)

Emerged from the discipline of sociology

Grounded means the theory developed

from the research is grounded or has it roots in
the data from which is was derived
 Grounded Theory Contd
Philosophical Orientation:
Based on symbolic interaction theory
Explores how people define reality and how their
beliefs are related to their actions
Meaning is expressed through symbols such as
words, religious objects, and clothing
Symbolic meanings are different for each of us
In social life - meanings are shared by groups
socialization process
Group life is based on consensus and shared
meanings
 Grounded Theory Contd

Is an approach to study the social processes

and social structures

Focus: is the evolution of a social experience

the social and psychological stages that
characterize a particular event of process
 Grounded Theory Contd
Methodology:
- does not begin with a focused research question
- the question emerges from the data

- fundamental structure feature

is the data collection
is the data analysis
Is the sampling of participants occurs simultaneously
This procedure is referred to as constant
comparison
 Grounded Theory Contd
Constant Comparison: is used to develop
and refine theoretically relevant categories
and to identify the basic problem
Categories that are elicited from the data are
constantly compared with data obtained
earlier so that commonalities and
variations can be determined
Categories can be condensed and
collapsed
 Grounded Theory Contd
Data Sources:

- in-depth interviews are most common

- Observational methods
- Existing documents

- Usually a sample of 25 to 50 informants

- Has contributed to the development of middle

range nursing theories
 Historical Research
Historiography examines events of the past
Historians believe the greatest value of historical
knowledge is an increased self-understanding

Philosophical Orientation:
A very old science
Primary question Where have we come from, who
are we, and where are we going?
Myths, past, present and future are not
distinguishable
Myths are a form of story telling
 Historical Research Contd
History moves beyond the myth
Chronicling events, deeds, victories and stories
about people and civilizations
Comparing histories, identifying patterns

Aim:
to discovery new knowledge
Seeking to answer questions concerning causes,
effects and trends relating to past events
To shed light on present behaviors and practices
 Historical Research Contd
Assumptions:

(a) There is nothing new under the sun

(a) One can learn from the past

Sampling in Qualitative Research
Usually small, non-random samples
Concern: measure attributes and relationships
in a popn
Need a representative sample

Aim: to discover meaning, uncover multiple

realities, therefore generalization is not a
guiding criteria
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Types of sampling:

(1) Convenience sampling

(2) Snowball sampling
(3) Theoretical sampling
(4) Purposeful sampling several strategies
maximum variation sampling,
extreme/deviant case sampling, and typical
case sampling
(5) Simple random
 Sample Size
No firm establishment of criteria or rules
Should be determined on the basis of
informational needs

Is largely a function of:

(a) the purpose of the inquiry
(b) the quality of the informants
(c) The type of sampling strategy used
 Sample Size
Guiding Principle is that of,

DATA SATURATION: sampling to the point at

which no new information is obtained and
redundancy is achieved
 Critiquing the Sampling Plan
Evaluate the sample plan based on the
following:
(a) Terms of its adequacy
(b) Terms of its appropriateness

Adequacy means

Appropriateness means -
 Assessment of Qualitative Data
Need to address validity and reliability
Do the measures used by the researcher yield data
reflecting the truth?

Lincolon & Cuba (1985) four criteria:

(1) Credibility
(2) Dependability
(3) Confirmability
(4) Transferability

(criteria for establishing trustworthiness)

 Assessment of Qualitative Data

Credibility refers to confidence in the truth of

the data

Prolonged engagement
Persistent observation
Triangulation
External checks peer debriefing & member
checks
Researcher credibility
 Assessment of Qualitative Data
Dependability refers to data stability over
time and over conditions

Steps to approach:

(a) Stepwise replication

(b) Inquiry audit
 Assessment of Qualitative Data
Confirmability refers to the objectivity or
neutrality of the data what does that mean?
AUDIT TRAIL:

Transferability refers to the extent to which

the findings from the data can be transferred
to other settings or groups = similar to the
concept of generalizability
THICK DESCRIPTION: