Advanced Power System Analysis -Unit-2

THE DECOUPLED POWER-FLOW METHO D

(For a 4 bus system)

Three-Phase Load Flow

Let
(A)

(B)
in (A) and (B)

(C)

(D)
(C),

(D),
(E)

(F)
 DC load flow
DC load flow is a method to estimate power flows through lines on
AC power systems.

An accurate solution of the power flows on an AC system is a non-linear

problem. Consequently it requires an iterative approach and there is no
guarantee of reaching a "convergent solution.

A "DC" load flow uses a simplified, linear form of modelling the

AC system. Consequently its solution is non-iterative, and absolutely
convergent.

It becomes a routine algebra problem, solving multiple equations with

multiple variables. It is inherently less accurate than a "full" AC load flow
solution, but it is useful where fast, dependable solutions are essential,
and the approximation is acceptable.

In reality, there is nothing "DC" about a DC load flow. It solves for phase
angles (an AC, reactive characteristic); it ignores resistance (a DC
characteristic); and it ignores voltage (because the objective is just
power flow).

It probably derives its name from the similarity between this solution
 History

HVDC Transmission (ac-dc load flow)

First commercial application of HVDC between Swedish
mainland and the island of Gotland in 1954.
Underwater link of 90 km and 20 MW.
After the advent of thyristor convertor, New Brunswick and
Quebec 320 MW back-to-back DC interconnection
commissioned in 1972.
With reduced size, cost and improved reliability of power
electronic converters, has made HVDC transmission more
widespread.
In North America, total HVDC transmission capacity in 1987
was 14,000 MW.
 HVDC BIPOLAR LINKS IN INDIA History

RIHAND-DELHI 2*750 MW / CHANDRAPUR-PADGE 2* 750 MW / TALCHER-KOLAR 2*1000 MW

ER TO SR SILERU-BARASORE 100 MW EXPERIMENTAL PROJECT ER SR
HVDC IN INDIA
(Bipolar)

HVDC LINK CONNECTING CAPACITY LINE

REGION (MW) LENGTH

Rihand North-North 1500 815

Dadri
Chandrapur - West - West 1500 752
Padghe
Talcher East South 2500 1367
Kolar
HVDC IN INDIA
(Back-to-Back)
HVDC LINK CONNECTING CAPACITY
REGION (MW)

Vindyachal North West 2 x 250

Chandrapur West South 2 x 500
Vizag I East South 500
Sasaram East North 500
Vizag II East South 500
 Advantages

In a number of applications HVDC is more effective than AC

transmission. Examples include:
Undersea cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC
losses. (e.g. 250 km Baltic Cable between Sweden and Germany)
Long power transmission without intermediate taps, for example,
in remote areas
Power transmission and stabilization between unsynchronized
AC distribution systems
Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid
Reducing line cost: 1) fewer conductors 2) thinner conductors
since HVDC does not suffer from the skin effect
Facilitate power transmission between different countries that
use AC at differing voltages and/or frequencies
Synchronize AC produced by renewable energy sources
 Disadvantages

The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching

and control.
Expensive inverters with limited overload capacity
Higher losses in static inverters at smaller transmission
distances
The cost of the inverters may not be offset by reductions in
line construction cost and lower line loss.
High voltage DC circuit breakers are difficult to build
because some mechanism must be included in the circuit
breaker to force current to zero, otherwise arcing and
contact wear would be too great to allow reliable switching.
 HVDC System Configurations and Components

HVDC links can be broadly classified into:

Monopolar links
Bipolar links
Homopolar links
Back-to-back links
Multiterminal links

Monopolar links

Monopolar links
It uses one conductor
The return path is provided by ground or water
Use of this system is mainly due to cost considerations
A metallic return may be used where earth resistivity is too high
This configuration type is the first step towards a bipolar link
Bipolar Links

It uses two conductors, one positive and the other negative

Each terminal has two converters of equal rated voltage, connected in series on
the DC side
The junctions between the converters is grounded
Currents in the two poles are equal and there is no ground current
If one pole is isolated due to fault, the other pole can operate with ground and
carry half the rated load (or more using overload capabilities of its converter
line)
Homopolar Links

It has two or more conductors all having the same polarity,

usually negative
Since the corona effect in DC transmission lines is less for
negative polarity, homopolar link is usually operated with
negative polarity
The return path for such a system is through ground
Converter (for dc transmission)

Thyristor
 Thyristor bridge convertor

hyristor convertor operation

Important angles for

rectifier and inverter
operation of a converter

00<<900 Rectifier
900 < <1800 Inverter

=900, Vd=0
=00, Vd=maximum dc
voltage
Components of HVDC Transmission
Systems

1.Converters
2.Smoothing reactors
3.Harmonic filters
4.Reactive power supplies
5.Electrodes
6.DC lines
7.AC circuit breakers
 Components of HVDC Transmission
Systems
Converters
They perform AC/DC and DC/AC conversion
They consist of valve bridges and transformers
Valve bridge consists of high voltage valves connected in a 6-pulse or 12-
pulse arrangement
The transformers are ungrounded such that the DC system will be able to
establish its own reference to ground
Smoothing reactors
They are high reactors with inductance as high as 1 H in series with each
pole
They serve the following:
They decrease harmonics in voltages and currents in DC lines
They prevent commutation failures in inverters
Prevent current from being discontinuous for light loads

Harmonic filters
Converters generate harmonics in voltages and currents. These harmonics
may cause overheating of capacitors and nearby generators and
interference with telecommunication systems
Harmonic filters are used to mitigate these harmonics
 Components of HVDC Transmission
Reactive power supplies
Systems
Under steady state condition conditions, the reactive power consumed
by the converter is about 50% of the active power transferred
Under transient conditions it could be much higher
Reactive power is, therefore, provided near the converters
For a strong AC power system, this reactive power is provided by a
shunt capacitor
Electrodes
Electrodes are conductors that provide connection to the earth for
neutral. They have large surface to minimize current densities and
surface voltage gradients
DC lines
They may be overhead lines or cables
DC lines are very similar to AC lines

AC circuit breakers
They used to clear faults in the transformer and for taking the DC link
out of service
They are not used for clearing DC faults
DC faults are cleared by converter control more rapidly
 Multiple Bridge Converters

Two or more bridges are connected in series

to obtain as a high a direct voltage as required

These bridges are series on the DC side,

parallel on the AC side

A bank of transformers is connected between

the AC source and the bridges

The ratio of the transformers are adjustable

under load

Multiple bridge converters are used in even

numbers and arranged in pairs for 12-pulse
arrangement
 Multiple Bridge Converters

Two banks of transformers, one connected in

Y-Y and the other Y- are used to supply each
pair of bridges

The three-phase voltage supplied at one bridge

is displaced from the other by 30 degrees

These AC wave shapes for the two bridges add

up to produce a wave shape that is more
sinusoidal than the current waves of each of
the 6-pulse bridges

This 12-pulse arrangement effectively

eliminates 5th and 7th harmonics on the AC
side. This reduces the cost of harmonic filters

This arrangement also reduces ripple in the

DC voltage
In simultaneous solution technique, the equations pertaining to the
A.C. system and the equations pertaining to the DC system are solved
together.

In the sequential method, the AC and DC systems are solved separately

and the coupling between the AC and DC system in accomplished by
injecting an equivalent amount of real and reactive power at the terminal
In
ACother words, for an HVDC link existing between buses i and j of an AC
buses.
system (rectifier at bus i and inverter at bus j), the effect of the DC link in
incorporated into the AC system by injections
Therefore the net injected power at bus I and j are

This process of alternately solving AC and DC system quantities is continued

till the changes in AC system and DC system quantities between two
consecutive iterations become less then a threshold value.

Although simultaneous technique gives the solution of the system without

any to and fro switching between the AC and DC systems, the sequential
solution technique is actually quite easy to implement .
(1)
(2
)

(3)

(4)
 (5)

(6
)
(3),(4),& (6)

(
)
(7
)
 Basic requirements and
Assumptions

Under balanced conditions similar converter bridges attached to the

same a.c. terminal busbar will operate identically regardless of the
transformer connection.

They may therefore be replaced by an equivalent single bridge for the

purpose of single-phase load-flow analysis.
 With reference to Fig. (A) the set of variables illustrated,
representing fundamental frequency or d.c. quantities permits a
full description of the converter system operation.

(Fig.A)

n equivalent circuit for the converter is shown in Fig. (B)

 variables, defined with reference to Fig. (A)

(3),(4),& (6)
(a)

(b)

(c)
(d)

(e)

(f)
 (g)

Equations (a,b,e,f) can be combined to form

Two independent variables are sufficient to model a d.c. converter, operating
under balanced conditions, from a known terminal voltage source.

However, the control requirements of h.v.d.c. converters are such that a

range of variables, or functions of them (e.g. constant power), are the
specified conditions.

If the minimum number of variables are used, then the control specifications
must be translated into equations in terms of these two variables. These
equations will often contain complex nonlinearities, and present difficulties in
their derivation and program implementation.
In addition, the expressions used for Pdc and Qdc in equations (1.) and (2.)
may be rather complex and this will make the programming more difficult.

For these reasons, a non-minimal set of variables is recommended, i.e. all

variables which are influenced by control action are retained in the model.
This is in contrast to a.c. load flows where, due to the restricted nature of
control specifications, the minimum set is normally used
Note: Variable is included to ensure a simple expression for Qdc.
While this is important in the formulation of the unified solution, variable may be omitted with the
sequential solution as it is not involved in the formulation of any control specification; cos is used as a
variable rather than to linearise the equations and thus improve convergence.
With the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of the converter (either rectifier or inverter)
is shown in Fig. In this figure, the notations are as follows;
It is to be noted that in Fig. , the angles are referred to the common
reference of the entire AC-DC system. With the above notations, the
basic equation governing the HVDC systems are as follow:

(1)

(2
)
 (3)

(4)

Subscripts rand i-denote the rectifier and inverter side respectively.

N- denotes the number of six-pulse bridges at any partienlar side

Angle - denotes the angular deference between the terminal voltages and primary current
of the transformer, i.e. the power factor of the converter as seen by the AC bus.

X-denotes the commutating reactance of the converter transformer

Angles and -denote the ring angle of the rectier and the extinction angle of the inverter
respectively.

The rectifier and the inverter are interconnected though the following
equation:

(5)
In equation (5), the quantity Rd denotes the DC link resistance.
Equations (1)-(5) describe the operation of a two-terminal HVDC link.

Now, as the basic objective of a HVDC link is to provide complete controllability of power over a
transmission corridor, both the rectifier and the inverter stations are suitably controlled and thus, suitable
control equations also need to be incorporated in the above model.

However, to solve the above equations, appropriate solution variables must be chosen. Now, for the reason
of simplicity, following set of solution variables is chosen for each converter;

(6)

(7)
In equation (7), Id has been taken only once as the DC current is same at both the
ends.

From equation (7) it is observed that there are total 9 unknown variables which
need to be solved to completely determine the HVDC link.

However, we have only 5 independent equations as shown in equations (1)-(5).

Therefore, out of 9 unknown variables, any 4 variables need to be specified and
thereafter, remaining 5 variables can be solved using equations (1)-(5).

With any of these four specified control values, the remaining 5 variables
can be solved from equations (1)-(5) by using standard Newton-Raphson
technique.
r, for the sequential solution techniques, the following quantities can be comput
asier way of algebraic manipulation of equations

(from equation 5)

(8)

(8
)

(9)
 (10)

(2
)

(11)

(1
)
(12)

(13)
(13)
,

(14)

(3
)
(15)

(4
)
(16)

(17)
(18)

(19)
(19
(19
)),
(20)

(21)
For this purpose, equations (8) - (21) are used to calculate the values of
different DC variables as follows:
 Now, let us look at equations (8) - (18) more closely. Equations (9)
(12) show that

As the DC system data are constant, the calculated values of these four
quantities would also be constant (i.e. their values would not change from
iteration to iteration).
Similarly, from equations (15) and (16) it can be seen that
the quantities

om equations (14) and (18),

Thus, the equivalent real and reactive power injections at buses 4 and 5 are
constant (they need not be updated at every iteration) and hence these
values can be pre-calculated and suitably adjusted into the injected real and
reactive powers at buses 4 and 5 before solving the AC system equations.
Thus, for the example at hand, the net injected real and reactive powers at
bus 4 and bus 5 can be calculated as follows;
Thus, for the example at hand, the net injected real and reactive powers at
bus 4 and bus 5 can be calculated as follows;

With these net injected real and reactive powers, the load flow solution of
the AC system is computed and the final solution is shown in Table A. It is
to be noted that in Table A, it has been assumed that no violation of
reactive power limit has taken place for any of the generators. After the
final solution of voltage magnitudes is obtained,
Table A
After the final solution of voltage magnitudes is obtained, the quantities ar
and ai can be calculated from equations (13) and (17) as a r = 0.8714 and
ai = 0.8149.

Note: In these two equations, the quantities E tr and Eti should be taken in
actual values 8(i.e. in kV), not in per unit.
Combination

Following the same reasoning as described above, from equations (20) -

(21) it can be observed that the quantities Vdi and Id are constant.

Moreover, as steps (3)-(8) of combination 8 are same as in combination

1, it immediately follows that for combination 8 also, the equivalent real
and reactive power injections (representing the DC system) are constant.

Therefore, by pre-calculating these equivalent power injections and

subsequently incorporating these calculated values into net bus power
injections, standard AC load flow solution can be computed to obtain the
solution of the composite AC-DC system.
From the above discussion regarding combination 1 and 8, it may appear
that the equivalent real and reactive power injections (representing the
DC system) are always constant for any combination of the specified
control variables. However, this is not true. Depending on the specified
control variables, the equivalent real and reactive power injections may
vary from iteration to iteration and therefore, they need to be calculated
in every iteration.

As an example, let us consider combination 3. For this combination, the

various steps are as follows:

(9)
(10
)
(13)
(11 (12
) )
(15)
(17)
 (15 (16
) )
(18
)
Note : In steps 3-5, the quantities

Thus, the equivalent reactive power injections at both rectifier and inverter
side depend on the AC bus voltage magnitudes (although the equivalent
real power injections at both the sides are independent of AC bus voltage
magnitudes).

Hence, the equivalent reactive power injections need to be updated at each

iteration and with these updated power injection values, another iteration of
AC load flow is carried out. This process is continued till convergence is
achieved.
 To illustrate this procedure further, let us assume that the specified
values corresponding to combination 3 are as follows:

Table B
Table B

In this table, the symbols In and MM denote iteration number and mismatch respectively.
Proceeding in this fashion, the algorithm finally converges in 70 iterations with a convergence
threshold value of 1.0e12.
The final converged values of the AC system quantities are shown in Table C.
Note that, as in the case of Table A, in this case also, no generator reactive
power violation has been assumed.
Table C
Final Results of AC-DC load flow of 5 bus system for combination 3 without any
generator Q limit violation

(9)
The results of the 30-bus system for combination 1 and 8 are shown in Table 2.39
for a tolerance of 1012 p.u. Furthermore, the results corresponding to combination 3 are
shown in Table D. It is to be noted that for these results, no reactive power limit on the
generators have been considered. The final solutions of corresponding DC system
quantities are also shown in these tables for these three cases.
Table D
Table E
Comparison of Tables C, D and E shows that because of the reactive power
absorption at both bus 9 and 28, the overall voltage profile of the system is lower
in the presence of HVDC link.

Moreover, when the equivalent injected real and reactive powers are constant (i.e.
do not vary from iteration to iteration), the number of iterations taken by the
algorithm is quiet comparable with that taken by the normal NRLF (polar) method
(without any HVDC link).

However, when these equivalent injected powers vary from iteration to iteration,
the number of iterations taken by the sequential algorithm is appreciably more as
compared that taken by the normal NRLF (polar) method (without any HVDC link).
For the remaining combinations, the DC quantities can be calculated following the
procedure of either combination 1 or combination 3.
Simultaneous techniques.

In the simultaneous technique, the AC and DC system equations are solved

together.

Now, in a N-bus, M-generator power system having a HVDC link between lines
k and l (bus k being the rectifier and bus l being the inverter), the total
number of unknown are (N 1)+(N M)+5 = 2N M+4. To solve these
unknowns, we also have (N 1)+(N M)+5 = 2N M +4 equations.

Therefore the size of Jacobian matrix would be (2NM+4)(2NM+4), as

compared to the (2NM1)(2NM1) Jacobian matrix of the AC system.

The additional 5 rows and 5 columns pertain to the DC equations should be

evaluated in each iteration. Also, the Jacobian matrix also needs to be inverted
in each iteration, thereby increasing the computation burden appreciably.

Apart from that, depending upon the combination of specified quantities, the DC
equations [(1)-(5)] need to be rearranged appropriately before starting the
solution procedure.

Therefore, the simultaneous solution technique does not give any computational
advantage vis--vis the sequential method and thus, this method is advantage
and is found to be complex.