UT Product Technology

UT Product Technology
Copyright 2004 WI Ltd Name

Product Technology
Steel Production
Casting Wrought Production Welding

Extrusion
Forging
Rolling
Defects Inherent
Processing
Service
Heat Treatment
Steel Production
2 Stage Process
Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted
by other materials.
Carbon content of Pig Iron is lowered by
reacting with oxygen
The molten metal is then cast into Ingots
or continuously cast
Ingots are rolled into Blooms, Billets or
Slabs

Steel Production
1st Stage
Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted by
other materials.
Raw materials Hematite (Fe2O3) or
Magnetite(Fe3O4) + Coke Limestone
Air

Steel Production
1st Stage
Blast furnace reactions
Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2
Fe2O3 + 3C = 2Fe + 3CO

Lime from limestone combines with
impurities (mainly silica) in the ore to form
fluid slag
SiO2 + 2Cao = 2CaOSiO2
Steel Production
Blast Furnace
Charge
Products
Ore 4000
Pig Iron 2000
Limestone 800
Slag 1600
Coke 1800
Dust 200
Air 8000
Furnace gas 10800
14600
14600

Steel Production
Blast Furnace
Product of Blast Furnace - Pig iron (>3% carbon)

Steel Production
Pig iron converted to steel by blowing
molten metal with oxygen or oxygen
rich gases
Oxygen reacts with excess carbon
C + 2 O CO2
C + O CO
CO + O CO2

Steel Production
Bessemer
Open hearth process
Basic oxygen process

Steel Production
Solid scrap

Steel Production
Molten Pig Iron

Steel Production
Oxygen lance

Steel Production
Steel

Steel Production
Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)
Ingots are used for further processing
Hot top

Steel Production
Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)
Ingots are used for further processing
2 types of mould - Narrow end up, Wide end
up

Steel Production
Metal solidifies from outside inwards
3 types of crystal formed
Chill or fine exui-axed
Columnar
Large equi-axed

Smelting Defects
Primary pipe/sink
Pipes
Shrinkage
Secondary
pipe

Smelting Defects
Non-metallic inclusions

Smelting Defects
Segregation of metals

Steel Production
Alternative to ingots is Continuous casting
Tundish
Mold forming slab
Water spray
chamber
Rollers

Steel Production

Steel Production
Advantages of Continuous casting
Faster : 300 tons of steel in 45 mins
compared to 12 hours
No piping problems
Cheaper : No ingot molds, handling

Product Technology
Casting

Casting Process
Liquid metal is caused to fill a cavity and
solidify into a useful shape
All materials used in metal manufacture
cast at some time

Casting Process
Stage 1 : A pattern of the finished
item slightly over sized
Stage 2 : Mould constructed from
the pattern
Stage 3 : Liquid metal poured
through the channels to fill
the mould

Casting
Pouring Riser
basin
Sprue
Core
Runner

Casting
Chaplets Chills
Casting
Casting involves the solidification from liquid to solid
Solidification proceeds from outside to centre
Solidification involves shrinkage

Grain Growth

Casting Methods
Sand casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Casting Methods
Sand casting
Die casting / Injection moulding

Die Casting
Casting
cavity
Injection
piston
Moving Die Fixed platen

platen
Casting Methods
Sand casting
Die casting / Injection moulding
Investment casting / Lost wax process

Investment Casting
Wax
Pattern

Investment Casting
Coat with
refractory
slurry

Investment Casting
Reinforce with plaster

backing (Investment)

Investment Casting
Oven dry to liquify or

vaporise pattern and dry
mould

Investment Casting
Pour metal

Investment Casting
Copyright 2004 WI Ltd Remove investment material

Name
Choice of Casting Method
Dimensional Accuracy Cost

Investment casting Sand casting
Die casting Die casting
Sand casting Investment casting

Casting Defects
Primary pipe/sink
Shrinkage cavities
Sinks
Secondary
pipe

Casting Defects
Blowholes and porosity
Cross-sectional
changes /corners

Casting Defects
Inclusions
Scabs
Fins

Casting Defects
Shrinkage

Casting Defects
Scabs

Casting Defects
Scabs- part of mould stuck to the casting

Casting Defects
Fins
Gaps

Casting Defects
Fins- excess metal of casting
Fin

Casting Defects
Hot tears The larger section The grain are
cools slower than the different
smaller section between the
sections
Hot Tears

Hot Tears

Chills are used for:
1. Directional grain growth
2. Uniform cooling rate

Casting Defects
Segregation

Product Technology
Wrought Production Methods

Wrought Production
Forging
Extrusion
Rolling

Wrought Production
Forging Extrusion
Metal confined under Metal forced through a
pressure to cause die under a large load
plastic flow
Rolling
Thickness reduction
through
compression
Rolling
Ingots, slabs and billets rolled to produce long
length products with uniform cross section
PRIMARY ROLLING
PROCESS / COGGING
Two-High Reversing Mill

Rolling
PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS
Secondary
piping

Rolling
SECONDARY ROLLING PROCESS
Lamination
Three-High Reversing
Mill
Rolling
Non-metallic
inclusion

Rolling
Stringers
Mill
Rolling
Segregation of
metals

Rolling
Banding
Mill
Cold Rolling
Initial rolling hot
Finishing by cold working
Cluster mill 4 High mill

Rolling
Bloom - Square c/s 150x150mm minimum
Slab - Rectangular c/s area greater than 14400 mm 2
Billet - Square 50x50 up to 120 x 120mm
Primary rolling- ingot to blooms and slabs

Secondary rolling - blooms and slabs to plates ,
sheets etc

Forging
Blacksmith
Hammer
Anvil

Forging
6 basic actions
Upsetting
Swaging
Bending
Welding
Punching
Cutting out

Forging
Blacksmith / Open die forging
Hammer
(Tup)
Anvil

Forging
Pressure forging

Forging
Closed die

Extrusion
High loads used to shape ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys
Items produced are of uniform cross section
Direct
Indirect
Impact

Direct Extrusion
Die
Billet Ram

Indirect Extrusion
Die
Billet
Extruded
item
Impact Extrusion
Punch
Blank
Die

Extrusion Defects
Oxide films (Extrusion defect)
Surface cracks
Grain structure variation

Impact Extrusion

Wrought Production Defects
Cracks
Laps
Seams
Stringers
Slugs
Bursts
Laminations

Wrought Production Defects
Banding
Excessive flash
Lack of fill
Mismatch
Internal cracking
Mechanical marks

Other Wrought Processes
Drawing
Material is reduced or changed in
profile by pulling through a die
Die
Wire or rod Force

Other Wrought Processes
Drawing
Material is reduced or changed in
profile by pulling through a die
Die
Tube Mandrel Force

Product Technology
Welding

A Weld : Definitions
A union between A continuous defect
pieces of metal at surrounded by
faces rendered parent material
plastic or liquid by
NASA
heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499

Welds
An ideal weld must give a strong bond between
materials with the interfaces disappearing
To achieve this
Smooth,flat or matching surfaces
Surfaces shall be free from contaminants
Metals shall be free from impurities
Metals shall have identical crystalline
structures
Welding
A union between pieces of metal at faces rendered
plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or both.
BS 499
Possible energy sources

Ultrasonics
Electron beam
Friction
Electric resistance
Electric arc
Electric Arc Welding
Electrod
e
Power
supply
Work piece
Clamp(Earth)
Electric discharge produced between cathode and
anode by a potential difference (40 to 60 volts)
Discharge ionises air and produces -ve electrons and

+ve ions
Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon cathode
Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to heat

(7000o C) and light
Amperage controls number of ions and electrons,

Voltage controls their velocity

Arc Welding Processes
Manual metal arc
Tungsten Inert Gas
Metal Inert Gas
Submerged Arc
Differences between them

Methods of shielding the arc
Consumable or Non-consumable electrode
Degree of automation

Zones in Fusion Welds
Fusion Zone

Fusion Zone
Heat Affected Zone

Fusion Zone
Heat Affected Zone
Parent Material or Base Metal

Joint Design
Butt Weld

Joint Design
Butt Weld
Lap
Joint

Joint Design
Butt Weld
Corner Lap
Joint Joint

Joint Design
Butt Weld
Corner Lap
Joint Joint
Edge
Weld

Joint Design
Butt Weld
Corner Lap
Joint Joint
Edge T Joint
Weld

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
Consumable
electrode
Flux coating
Arc
Evolved gas
shield
Core wire
Slag
Weld metal
Parent metal

Manual Metal Arc Welding
Shielding provided by Welder controls

decomposition of flux Arc length
covering Angle of electrode
Electrode consumable Speed of travel
Manual process Amperage settings

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Gas nozzle
Filler wire
Non-consumable
tungsten
electrode
Gas shield
Arc
Weld metal
Parent metal

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Gas nozzle Reel feed
Consumable
electrode(filler wire)
Gas shield
Arc
Weld metal
Parent metal

Submerged Arc
Reel feed
Flux
retrieval Consumable
electrode
Flux feed
Slag
Weld metal
Parent metal

Electroslag
Filler wire
Water cooled
copper shoes
Molten flux
Weld metal

Welding Defects
Cracks
4 Crack Types
Solidification cracks
Hydrogen induced cracks
Lamellar tearing
Reheat cracks

Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by Shape Classified by Position
Longitudinal HAZ
Transverse Centreline
Branched Crater
Chevron Fusion zone
Parent metal

Welding Defects
Cracks
Solidification
Occurs during weld solidification process
Steels with high sulphur content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
eg Crater cracking

Welding Defects
Cracks
Hydrogen Induced
Requires susceptible grain structure, stress and
hydrogen
Hydrogen enters via welding arc
Hydrogen source - atmosphere or contamination of
preparation or electrode
Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
Most likely in HAZ

Welding Defects
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
Step like appearance
Occurs in parent material or HAZ
Only in rolled direction of the parent material
Associated with restrained joints subjected to
through thickness stresses on corners, tees and
fillets
Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions

Welding Defects
Cracks
Re-Heat Cracking
Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during
post weld heat treatment or service at elevated
temperatures
Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects
Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor
profile material selection and controlled post weld
heat treatment

Welding Defects
Incomplete root penetration
Causes
Too large or small a root gap
Arc too long
Wrong polarity
Electrode too large for joint preparation
Incorrect electrode angle
Too fast a speed of travel for current

Welding Defects
Root concavity
Causes
Root gap too large
Insufficient arc energy
Excessive back purge (TIG)

Welding Defects
Lack of fusion
Causes
Contaminated weld preparation
Amperage too low
Amperage too high (welder increases speed of travel)

Welding Defects
Undercut
Causes
Excessive welding current
Welding speed too high
Incorrect electrode angle
Excessive weave
Electrode too large

Welding Defects
Incompletely Filled Groove
Causes
Insufficient weld metal deposited
Improper welding technique

Welding Defects
Gas pores / Porosity
Causes
Excessive moisture in flux or preparation
Contaminated preparation
Low welding current
Arc length too long
Damaged electrode flux
Removal of gas shield

Welding Defects
Inclusions - Slag
Causes
Insufficient cleaning between passes
Contaminated weld preparation
Welding over irregular profile
Incorrect welding speed
Arc length too long

Welding Defects
Inclusions - Tungsten
Causes
Contamination of weld during TIG welding
process

Welding Defects
Burn Through
Causes
Excessive amperage during welding of root
Excessive root grinding
Improper welding technique

Welding Defects
Arc Strikes Spatter
Causes Causes
Electrode straying onto parent metal Excessive arc energy
Electrode holder with poor insulation Excessive arc length
Poor contact of earth clamp
Damp electrodes
Arc blow

Steel Metallurgy
Steel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other elements
Carbon- Strength, hardness, toughness, ductility

Manganese- Strength, hardenability
Silicon - Toughness
Molybdenum- Creep resistance, temper embrittlement
Chromium- Hardness, wear resistance, corrosion
Nickel - Ductility, strength, toughness

Steel Metallurgy
Steel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other elements
BCC FCC

Steel Metallurgy Elastic
Deformation
Low Stress
Increased
Stress
Plastic
Deformation
Heat Treatment
Post heat treatment performed to
improve specific metallurgical or
mechanical properties or stress relief
Softening Controlled by
Heating rate
Hardening
Temperature attained
Tempering Time at the elevated temperature
Stress Relief Cooling rate

Heat Treatment
900
850 Ac3
Ar3
800
Ac2
Ar2
750
Ac1
700 Ar1
1 2
Copyright 2004 WI Ltd
Minutes to raise temperature by 10 C Name
Iron Carbide Diagram
1000 Ac3
900
800
Ac1
700
600
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Copyright 2004 WI Ltd Carbon % Name
Iron Carbide Diagram
1000 Ac3
900 Austenite
800 Austenite and Ferrite

Austenite and Fe3 C
Ac1
700
Ferrite and Pearlite Pearlite and Cementite
600
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Copyright 2004 WI Ltd Carbon % Name
Heat Treatment
Hardening
Produce hard but
brittle material
Heat to above
transformation range
Cool very quickly
( quench ) in oil, water
or brine

Heat Treatment
Stress Relief
Relax stresses without significant changes in the metallurgical structure
Heat to 550-650 degrees C
Hold for 1 hour per 25mm thickness
Cool in air

Heat Treatment
Full Annealing
Produces very soft low
hardness material for
machining or cold work
Heat to above 910
degrees C
Hold
Cool very slowly in
furnace
Once reached 680 C ,
cool in air

Heat Treatment
Sub Critical Annealing
Spheroidizing produces soft low hardness material cheaper than full anneal
Heat must not rise above 700 degrees C
Hold for recrystallisation to occur
Cool in air

Heat Treatment
Normalising
Maintains and improves mechanical properties and modifies grain structure
Heat to above 910 degrees C
Hold
Cool in air

Nature and Origin of Defects
Inherent
Processing
In Service

Heat Induced Defects
Heat treatment cracks
Grinding cracks
Friction induced cracks

In Service Cracks
Cyclic stress
Fatigue cracks Fatique

crack
Stress corrosion cracks
Hydrogen induced cracks
Hydrogen

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Casting Wrought Production Welding

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Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2

Fe2O3 + 3C = 2Fe + 3CO

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Product of Blast Furnace - Pig iron (>3% carbon)

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Mold forming slab

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Moving Die Fixed platen

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Reinforce with plaster

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Oven dry to liquify or

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Dimensional Accuracy Cost

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