Water Supply

Water Supply

o Importance of supplying quality water : Inferior quality water supply

and inadequate sanitation are the root causes of many of the diseases that afflict the
mankind. Diseases spread or caused by inferior water supply are called water
borne diseases. They sometimes even cause epidemic i.e unexpected and
uncontrollable spreading of a particular disease to a large number of people in a
locality within a short period of time, having fatal effect on the life and health of the
people.
o Typhoid, Bacillary Dysentry, Cholera, hepatitis and Jaundice are some of
the water-borne diseases. These diseases are caused by water carrying pathogenic
bacterias and infectious viruses. The water is also a carrier for many of the
other diseases caused by round worms, flat worms or tape worms, rotifers and
protozonal diseases such as amoebiasis and amoebic dysentry.
o But spreading of these diseases can be easily controlled by supplying good quality
water (Pure and wholesome) and by the provision of adequate sanitation facilities and
maintaining the same in the premises.
o Water within reach : Historically human settlements have always been around
available water supply points like river, springs etc. Most of the civilizations have been
Knit around the rivers and thus the civilizations were known as River Valley
Civilizations E.g Indus Valley Civilizations, etc.
o Drinking water is a precious commodity. As such naturally available water in rivers,
streams, lakes and springs are not usually contaminated and do not carry much of
impurities. But the water has been polluted or contaminated by human activities,
some of his habits like washing clothes, animals etc. at the same place where the
drinking water is taken or by discharge of dangerous chemicals or sewage in the
water streams meant for human habitation, making the water unfit for human
consumption and non-potable.
Water Supply

Ancient River Valley Civilizations

The Nile River
Water supply

o Pure & Wholesome water : Water to be termed as pure and wholesome and fit
for drinking purpose should be :
1. Colorless and clear.
2. Free from all suspended, soluble and colloidal impurities of both organic and
inorganic in nature,
3. Free from sediments, taste and odour, pathogenic organisms, radioactive
substances like radium, strontium, etc.
4. Free from phenolic compounds, chlorides, fluorides and iodine beyond
standards laid down.
5. Free from hardness (should not contain impurities like calcium or magnesium
bicarbonates and sulphates which make the water hard and unsuitable from
domestic and industrial use).
6. Free from corrosive substances.
7. Free from iron, manganese. Lead, arsenic and other poisonous materials.
8. Free from various fungi such as algae, mushrooms, they cause intolerable
taste and odour due to their decomposition.
9. Free from Escherichia Coli: E-Coli are organisms which are contained in the
intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and human beings and are rarely
found outside the animal body except excreta. Prescence of E-Coli in water in
therefore indication of contamination of water through feacal discharge.

Bacterial Examination of Water: In the bacterial examination of water earlier the

amount of coliform organism present was being decided by Coliform Index, but now in the
recent days this method has been suspended and replaced by Most Probable Number,
this is bacterial density of a source based on sampling methods and use of probability.
Water supply

Troublesome bacterias: In addition to bacterial contamination which is harmful

to human beings, some of the bacterias are troublesome in water supply point of
view.

Iron Bacteria : These bacterias deposit iron on pipes and fittings by extracting it from
water, the growth of these bacterias cause slimy brown deposits causing colouration and
turbidity. Water with such bacterias is unfit for food preparation, air conditioning back up
water, and other industrial purposes.

Sulphur Bacteria : They can oxidize sulphur in elemental form or reduce sulphur
compounds. The acid produced during metabolic process destroys concrete. These are
mainly responsible for bacterial corrosion of iron and steel pipes, such corrosion is high in
marshy and water-logged soil.
Water supply

o All premises intended for human habitation or use should have pure and
wholesome water as per Bureau of Indian Standards. These standards are
as follows.

Quality Standards :
Si. Characteristics * Acceptable ** Cause for
Rejection
No.
1 Turbidity ( units on J. T. U Scale ) 5 10
Colour (units on Platinum cobalt
2 5.0 25
scale)
Taste and odour unobjectionabl
3 unobjectionable
e
4 pH (hydrogen iron concentration) 6.5 to 8.5 6.5 to 8.5
5 Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 500 2000
6 Total hardness (mg/l) (as CacO 3) 300 600
7 Chlorides (as Cl) (mg/l) 250 1000
8 Sulphates (as SO4) (mg/l) 200 400
9 Fluorides (as F) (mg/l) 1.0 1.5
10 Nitrates (as NO3) (mg/l) 45 100
11 Calcium (as Ca) (mg/l) 75 200
12 Magnesium (as Mg) (mg/l) 30 150
13 Iron (as Fe) (mg/l) 0.3 1.0
Water supply

Quality Standards : Contd

Si. No. Characteristics * Acceptable ** Cause for

Rejection
13 Manganese (as Mn) (mg/l) 0.1 0.3
14 Copper (as Cu) (mg/l) 0.05 1.5
15 Zinc (as Zn) (mg/l) 5.0 15.0
Phenolic Compounds (as Phenol)
16 0.001 0.002
(mg/l)
Alnionic detergents (as MBAS)
17 0.2 1.0
(mg/l)
18 Mineral Oil (mg/l) 0.01 0.03
Toxic Materials :
19 Arsenic (as As) (mg/l) 0.05 0.05
20 Cadmium (as Cd) (mg/l) 0.01 0.01
Chromium (as hexavalent
21 0.05 0.05
Cr( (mg/l)
22 Cyanides (as CN) (mg/l) 0.05 0.05
23 Lead (as Pb) (mg/l) 0.1 0.1
24 Selenium (as Se) (mg/l) 0.01 0.01
25 Mercury (as Hg) (mg/l) 0.001 0.001
Water supply

Si. Characteristics
Quality Standards : Contd * ** Cause
No. Accepta for
ble Rejection
Toxic Materials : Contd
Polynuclear aromatic
26 hydrocarbons Nil Nil
(as PAH)
27 Pesticide (mg/l) ---- 0.001
28 Boron (Mg/l) 1 1
Aluminium (as Al)
29 0.03 0.2
( (mg/l)
Residual Chlorine (mg/l) ---- (at
30 0.2 Consumer
end)
Radio Activity :
Gross Alpha Activity 0.1 Bg/l
31 Nil
max
* Acceptable :Gross
indicates the limits
Beta Activity upto which the water is generally acceptable to
(PCi
32
the consumers.= pico curie) Nil 1
** Cause of Rejection : indicates the limits while the water is not acceptable but still may
be tolerated in the absence of alternative and better source but above
this limit the water supply will have to be rejected.
Water supply

Basic principles of design of water supply system :

1. The supply system should always work towards the gravity through gravity flow
systems, to the maximum extent possible.
2. There should not be any cross connection between an impure and pure water
supply. Cross connection with a non return valve between a potable and non-potable water
supply is also not safe as the non return valve may not function effectively.
3. All Plumbing fixtures and appurtances should be supplied with water in sufficient volume
and at adequate pressures to function satisfactorily and without undue noise under all
circumstances. The water supply installations and sanitary installations have to be designed
for peak hydraulic load.
4. The pipe network should be of adequate size to give the desired rate of flow. Also the
frictional losses are within the limits and the velocity of flow are within the limits. The internal
surface of the pipes should be very smooth to minimize the frictional losses.
5. The design of pipe network should be so made such that there is no contact between the
lines feeding to the cisterns or any such other appliances with those feeding water for
human consumption with physical contact.
6. All the connections should be water tight to prevent loss of water and also remain
undamaged by vibrations or by traffic or by temperature change.
7. The pipe network should not pass by the side of any sewage line or refuse drain nor it
passes through any field of foul ground where dirt or city refuse have been deposited and
manure dumps.
8. The pipe network should be laid and fixed so that it shall be accessible at any time for
attending to damages, leakages, etc.
9. The pipe network should be divided into sections to facilitate repairs, each section
must be separated by isolation valves in order that a section can be isolated for repairs
keeping the rest of the distribution network functioning.
10. In the pipe network changes in the diameter and in direction should be gradual rather
than abrupt to avoid undue loss of discharge head.
11. The piping should be so laid that air locks do not occur and it should be possible to
flush out the network from time to time.
Water supply

Basic principles of design of water supply system :

12. The supply system should always work towards the gravity through gravity flow systems, to
the maximum extent possible.
13. The pipes to carry satisfactory water and unsatisfactory water should be laid separately.
14. Whenever a supply of less satisfactory water and satisfactory water has to be mixed, it shall be
done only by discharging both the flows into a cistern and by a pipe discharging into air
gap above the top level of the cistern at the height equal to twice its nominal bore and in no
case less than 15 cm. It is necessary to maintain a definite air gap in all plumbing used in the water
closet.
15. In the building if a provision is made for storage of water on account of interruption of supply or to
maintain a reserve supply or to maintain a reserve for fire fighting arrangements, a tank
for storage of water should be provided which should be watertight and of required
capacity.
16. These tanks should be positioned in a location which should be easily accessible to facilitate
thorough inspection and cleaning. These tanks should be dust proof and mosquito-proof.
Stagnation of water within the tank should be avoided because stagnated water is
definitely a good breeding ground for various organisms which are very serious for
human beings. E.g Breeding and hiding place for population of mosquitoes. Spraying few drops
of kerosene or oil on the surface of stagnated water would considerably reduce their living comfort
level and likely to reduce breeding.
17. However, prevention of stagnation of water inside the tanks is an effective and efficient method.
This could be achieved by providing domestic water supply inlet to the fire fighting tank
and water to the domestic water tank is supplied through overflow from the fire water
tank, thus stagnation of water in the fire water tank, which is intended for use during the
emergency of building fire, is renewed through an inflow of fresh water supply. This is not only
done for renewing fire water tank with fresh water but mainly to ensure that fire water
tank is always filled with water for fire fighting purpose during the emergency of
building fire.
18. In case of underground water tanks (U.G Tanks),the manholes which are provided on the top of the
tank should be provided with corrosion resistant heavy duty cover, and their top level should be
cautiously decided, such that contamination of stored water on account of above
ground flow or due to seepage of underground water should be avoided.
Water supply

Basic principles of design of water supply system :

19. Changes in the diameter of the pipe or changes in direction of pipe should be gradual and
not abrupt. Abrupt changes involves avoidable loss of head of water.
20. No boiler for generating steam or closed boiler of any description or any such machinery
should be directly connected with supply pipe. Every such boiler or machinery should be
supplied from a feed tank only.
21. The design of pipe network should be such that there is no possibility of back flow from
any cistern or appliance whether by siphonage or otherwise. Non return valves should not
be relied upon to prevent such back flow.
22. Where pipe network has to be laid in a recent fill, proper supports has to be provided with
such precautions to protect the pipe from damage due to the uneven settlement of the
building verses the buried pipes under the ground, at the junction of ground horizontal
pipes and vertical hydrants. A flexible ferrule at the junction would take care of such
undesirable movements.
23. All the underground pipes has be laid over a good sand bed of atleast 75 mm and atleast
at 75 cms depth below surface ground and to be backfilled with good quality soil or with
good sand atleast around the pipes as a protective layer, to prevent unnecessary corrosion
of pipes. Over the top surface of the protective layer of the pipe, a layer of bricks could be
spread intact as an additional protection and back filled thoroughly. This additional
protective layer of bricks acts as an indication of pipe just below during retrenching
for attending the services maintenance or in case of removal of pipes for rerouting. This
prevents unnecessary damage to the pipes.
24. All the pipe joints are to be laid such that the cut ends of the pipes are to be fixed in the
enlarged ends of the pipes, in the direction of flow of water. i.e the cut ends of all the
pipes are always arranged towards the direction of flow of water.
25. No pipe work to be covered permanently before pressure testing of pipes for
weak joints & leakages. In case any leakage or dampness identified after the
completion of the work, it incurs a lot of additional rework which leads to unnecessary
waste of time, money, materials and efforts taken. This would create undue pressure in
the work completion process and challenges the quality of all work executed.
Water supply

Basic principles of design of water supply system :

26. The dead ends in the pipe lines should be avoided to the maximum extent possible, in-case
dead ends are unavoidable the hydrant should be provided with washout caps as the deposition of
solids is at higher rate in the dead ends where water stagnates, which demands for frequent cleaning
intervals.
27. Necessary free board (i.e the air gap height clearance between the surface of the water and the
bottom of the cover slab of the water tank) has to be adequately provided inside the tank. This is done
to oxygenate the water, when the surface of the water is in contact with air. Hence for a calculated
capacity of water tank, the surface area of the water to be exposed in air could be judiciously decided.
28. Growth of Algae : Since algae are tiny plant variety they grow well in the prescence of sunlight.
Growth of algae can be controlled by covering the water tanks and by preventing
stagnation of water. It is always better to provide only required scattered lighting inside the water
tanks just sufficient for cleaning and maintenance purposes.
29. Lead pipes should not be utilized anywhere in the domestic water supply system. Long term
exposure of lead with water forms lead hydroxide which gets mixed in the water supplied, when taken
in continuously act as a slow poison and causes illness to human health.
30. Polythene, PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride), UPVC, pipes should not be installed near hot water
pipes or near any source of heat.
31. Air valves should be provided at all summits and wash outs at low points. The pipelines to follow
the general contours of the site. It shall be so laid that it generally rises to air valves and falls to a
water wash out.
32. The horizontal mains should be laid at least 90 cms below surface under road and at least
75 cms below surface of the path to protect it from various traffic loads coming on it and to
prevent the pipes from settling under load and breaking.
33. Safety demands water pipes should be separated from electric, telephone and other such cables.
34. If iron pipes are to be laid in corrosive soil or environment is inevitable, the piping should be properly
protected from contact with such conditions by suitable means. Using galvanised iron or applying
thick coat of coal tar on the outer surface of the pipes or using composite pipes with lining
of rich concrete cover on the outer surface of the pipe would be a better solution, to resist
corrosion. Using cast iron pipe or other pipes being carried through cast iron tubes would also protect
the pipes from such corrosive soil conditions. Cast iron will not corrode away but it is highly brittle.
Water supply

Calculation of water requirements:

Step 1 : Calculation of number of occupants
I. The requirement of water should be based on the actual number of users
which should also include floating population. In case of unit occupancies like
residential building, the number of occupants for each residential unit may be based
on the family unit of five. This is a rough and ready assumption.
II. In case of other occupancies the number of probable occupants is to be calculated on
rational basis. To calculate the number of occupants is such cases, the gross floor
area of the building (which includes corridor areas and common areas) is
calculated and the number of occupants is obtained by dividing the gross
floor area by average area per occupant.

III. TheS.average
No areaOccupancy
per occupant as per accepted
Occupant standards is area
per floor as follows.
in m

1 Residential 12.5
2 Educational 4.0
3 Institutional 15.0
4 Dormitory or orphan 7.5
homes

5 Mercantile 6.0

Since this is a rational method, necessary allowance could be considered for the recent
increase in population density and space constraints in crowded metropolitan
occupancy.
Water supply

Calculation of water requirements:

Step -2 : Per Capita water requirements for various types of Buildings
(LPCD)
1. Water requirements for buildings can be divided into four broad types as give below:
a) Residential Buildings
b) Industrial Buildings
c) Office Buildings
d) Buildings with Floating Population
Consumption per
2.
2. Consumption
Consumption of of water
water is
is S. No Type head per day (in
dependent Litres)
dependent on on very
very many
many
factors
factors such
such as
as customs
customs ofof 1 Factories with Bathrooms 45
user
user community,
community, 2 Factories without bathrooms 30
environment
environment , etc.
, etc. Hence
Hence
very
very great accuracy in
great accuracy in 3 Hospitals including laundry per bed
estimation
estimation of
of water
water
consumption
consumption is
is not
not a) Number of beds not
340
feasible.
feasible. exceeding 100
b) Number of beds exceeding
450
3. 100
3. Water
Water supply
supply systems
systems areare
designed as per standards
designed as per standards 4 Nurses home and medical quarters 135
laid
laid down
down for
for various
various types
types 5 Hostels 135
of
of buildings, These are the
buildings, These are the
averages
averages based
based on
on 6 Hostel per bed 180
statistical data and slight
statistical data and slight 7 Offices 45
variation
variation on
on lower
lower side
side inin 8 Restaurant per seat 70
actual
actual availability
availability should
should
not
not worry
worry the
the design
design much.
much. Cinemas, Concert halls, Theatre per
9 15
seat
10 Day school 45
Water supply

Calculation of water requirements:

Step -2 : Per capita water requirements for various types of Buildings
(Contd )
S. No Type Consumption per head
per day (in Litres)
13 Desert coolers per 15 Sq .mt of 300 to 400 litres per day
area cooled
14 Air Conditioning

(a) Induced or forced draft 65 litres/tonne of Air

cooling tower conditioning/day
(b) Natural cooling tower 90 litres/tonne of Air
conditioning/day
(c) Cooling Pond 185 litres/tonne of Air
conditioning/day
It may also estimated at 70
Thumb rule litres/hour/100 sq.mt of area
conditioned.
Total required water Calculated number of Per Capita water
15
quantity for the = occupants in the
Horticulture 2 to 3 X requirement for that type
litres/sq.m/day

Building Building of Building (in ltrs)

Water supply

Design of water supply network Inside the Building:

o Water is brought into the building premises through a independent service
connection from the municipal mains which are from the towns overhead water
tanks or from the water storage reservoir. Usually water is fed into the building
through gravity flow or some times it may also be pumped through pumping
station to provide necessary pressure and flow to the consumers.

o Basically there are only two system of water supply for the buildings
a) Upfeed System or Direct System
b) Downfeed System

a) Upfeed System or Direct System :

1. within the building premises, if the water is fed directly to the various outlets of
water from the municipal mains directly (without underground water storage or
pumping), it is called Up feed system of water supply.
2. This system definitely requires necessary pressure head and residual pressure
upto the outlets in the topmost floor. If necessary pressure is not available a
hydro-pneumatic system could support or supplement the upfeed system.
3. In this system, the water is allowed to be drawn by individual consumers
from rising mains and the amount of water which goes into the overhead
water tank is the residual water after drawn off by the various occupants at
different floors. In the case of hydro-pneumatic system there are no overhead
water tanks at all and the water is pumped directly whenever a tap gets opened.
Water supply

Single line Schematic diagram (SLD) of Upfeed System or

Direct Water supply System :
Water supply

Design of water supply network Inside the Building:

Disadvantages of Upfeed System :
1. The Upfeed system of water supply requires high pressure to be
maintained in the pipelines all the 24 hours. The high pressure in the pipe lines
gives rise to high water loss due to pipe leakages.
2. The pressure in the pipe lines to be maintained depends on the
height of the buildings, if the height of the building is more it demand more
pressure, usually the pressure in the water mains ranges from 35 meters water head to
about 60 meters of water head. If the water pressure exceeds 60 meters the pipe
network may be overtaxed by the pressures created by the water hammer. Requires
high strength pipes or metal pipes to hold the water pressure.
3. Since it demands continuous supply of water from mains, it cannot be
implemented in countries where municipal water supply is
intermittent (i.e water supply is not continuous or water is supplied only for few
scheduled hours in a day).
4. This system of water supply has every likelihood of back siphonage
occurring through sinks and wash basins wherein the tap may be
accidently submerged in water, such impure water may get into the pipe
system through back siphonage and may contaminate the fresh water supply.
5. If any new outlet connection is added in the supply mains (which is beyond what was
designed in the original concept) it would cause low pressure and make the system
inefficient.
6. Because of high water pressure at the outlet points and taps, there could be more
wastage of water due to splashing of water and at unforeseen leakage points
because water would have wasted within a short period of time if unnoticed.
Water supply

Design of water supply network Inside the Building:

Advantages of Upfeed System :
1. Supplies water which is uncontaminated otherwise due to
overhead tank which if it is unmaintained the water gets
contaminated. Upfeed system avoids such risk of contamination since
wholesome water is drawn off for drinking and culminary purpose directly from
the rising mains before it reaches tank.
2. It requires less quantity of pipes lines for the pipe network
and would be economical and faster installation.

b) Downfeed System
3. Within the building premises, if the water is routed through the underground
water tank from which it is pumped to the terrace water tank or water is
directly taken up to the terrace water tank if necessary pressure head is
available through the municipal supply directly. From the terrace water tank
water is supplied by gravity flow through a network of pipes to different floors
below, it is called as Down feed system of water supply.
Advantages of Downfeed System :
4. The provision of overhead tank ensures water supply over a longer duration
than the supply of hours of municipal corporation.
Water supply

Probable Simultaneous Demand from a number of

draw off points :
Demand if all Probable Demand if all Probable
taps were simultaneous taps were simultaneous
opened demand opened demand
(l.p.m) (l.p.m) (l.p.m) (l.p.m)

54 54 364.5 166.5
63 58.5 423 175.5
72 65 481.5 189
81 72 553.5 202.5
90 79 639 216
103.5 85.5 733.5 234
117 92 846 252
135 101 972 274.5
157.5 108 1116 292.5
180 117 1287 319.5
207 126 1480 342.5
238.5 135 1701 382.5
274.5 144 1957.5 432
319.5 153 2250 468
l.p.m = Litres per minute
Over 2250 20 %