Explain 3

Mobile Radio Link
EXPLAIN CHAPTER 3
Radio Wave Propagation + Propagation

Models
Antenna Systems
Diversity
Link Budget + Cell Sizes
Interference
1 NOKIA 1999 EXPLAIN_3.PPT/ 24.8.99 / WORKSHOP
dB

dB
Calculations in dB (deci-Bel) -30 dBm = 1 W

logarithmic, relative scale -20 dBm = 10 W
Always with respect to a reference -10 dBm = 100 W
dBW : dB above Watt -7 dBm = 200 W
dBm : dB above mWatt -3 dBm = 500 W
dBi : dB above isotropic 0 dBm = 1 mW
dBd : dB above dipole +3 dBm = 2 mW
dBV/m: dB above V/m +7 dBm = 5 mW
+10 dBm = 10 mW
rule-of-thumb: +3dB = factor 2 +13 dBm = 20 mW
+7 dB = factor 5 +20 dBm = 100mW
+10 dB = factor 10 +30 dBm = 1 W
+40 dBm = 10W
+50 dBm = 100W

Conversion from dB
Power
P P ( dB )
dB 10 log [ Plin. ] 10 10
P0
Voltages
E E ( dB )
dB 20 log [ Elin. ] 10 20
Conversion factor:
E0
E(dBV/m) = P(dBm) + 106,4 + antenna factor

antenna factor = 20 log(f [MHz]) -29,8 - ant_gain +
cable_loss
antenna factor for 900 MHz : ~ 29 dB
1800 MHz : ~ 35 dB

Radio Wave Propagation

Theory of Wave Propagation
Theory of wave propagation is an exact science

Radio Channel
Multipath
propagation
Shadowing
Terrain structures
Reflections
Interferences

Reflections
Strong echos can cause excessive
propagation delay
Uncritical, if within equaliser window
Can cause severe (self-) interference if
out of equaliser window
weak direct signal
strong reflected signal
amplitude long echos, out of equaliser window:

==> interference contributions
delay time
equaliser window
16 s
Radio Channel
Reciprocal (in fieldstrength)

Dispersive
In time (echos, multipath
propagation)
In spectrum (wideband
channel)
direct path
amplitude
echos
delay time
equaliser window 16 s

Time Dispersion
Echos due to multipath propagation
1 s = ca. 300 m path difference
GSM : Equaliser up to 16 s (~ 5km path
difference)
2-path-model as worst case situation
Standardised delay profiles in GSM
specifications :
TU3 : typical urban at 3 km/h (pedestrians)
TU50 : typical urban at 50 km/h
HT100 : hilly terrain (road vehicles)
RA250 : rural area (highways)
No hard limitation at 250 km/h

Fading (1)
Slow fading
Shadowing due to
large obstacles on level (dB)
the way +10
0
Fast fading (Rayleigh
fading) -10
Destructive
interference of -20
920 MHz
several signals v = 20 km/h
-30
Fading dips, radio 0 1 2 3 4 5m
holes

Fading (2)
power
Rayleigh
fading
+20 dB
lognormal
fading
mean
value
- 20 dB
2 sec 4 sec 6 sec time

Gaussian Distribution
Most general form of distribution

Superposition of several processes
with any distribution function will
always converge towards a Gaussian
distribution
Gaussian distribution
Applicable to all natural processes,
also to slow fading
Mean value,
standard deviation

Rayleigh Distribution
Rayleigh distribution
Applicable for fast fading in
obstructed paths
r r2
p(r ) 2 exp( )
2 2

Rician Distribution
Rician distribution
Sliding transition between Gauss and Rayleigh
Applicable to fast fading with strong direct
partial waves
Rice-factor K = r/A: indirect/ direct signal
energy
K = 0 : Rayleigh
K >>1 : Gaussian
K=0
(Rayleigh)
K=1
K=5 r r 2 A2 r A

p(r ) 2 exp 2
* I 0 2
2

Phasor Diagram
Envelope signal is composed from many

partial waves
Flat fading
All partial signals A4 4
are subject to same
3
fading patterns A5
A3 5
(time and space)
Frequency selective A2
2
fading result
Partial signals have 1
independent fading Aresult
properties A1
Wideband
channel :
16
B * > 1
NOKIA 1999 EXPLAIN_3.PPT/ 24.8.99 / WORKSHOP
Propagation Mechanisms
Free- space propagation
Signal strength decreases
exponentially with distance
D
Reflection
Specular Reflection
amplitude: A --> *A ( < 1)
phase : --> -
polarisation: material dependant specular reflection
phase shift
Diffuse Reflection
amplitude: A --> *A ( < 1)
diffuse reflection
phase : --> random phase
polarisation : random
Propagation Mechanisms
Absorption
heavy amplitude
attenuation material A A - 5..30 dB
dependant phase
shifts depolarisation
Diffraction
wedge- model
knife edge
multiple knife edges

Free Space Loss
Free space loss proportional to 1/
d^2
Simplified case: Which
isotropic antenna
part of total radiated power
Surface S = 4 * R^2
R
is found within surface s ?
assume surface
s = 1m^2 Simplified case (perfectly isotropic
antenna):
Power density = P / S
total power within surface s : P =
A = 16*A P/S *s
A = 4*A
A
assume R=100m:
d
2d ==> P = P/ 7,96*10e-6
4d ==> -51 dB (coupling loss at ref.
Power density reduces with square of
distance)
distance
==> received power per area unit
19 NOKIA 1999 EXPLAIN_3.PPT/ 24.8.99 / WORKSHOP reduces at same rate
Signal Propagation
Power density by the Ps G s
S
receiving end: 4 d 2
2
Effective antenna 2 Pr
Aeff GR G s Gr
area: Ps 4 d
4
Received power
Pr = S Aeff
Mobile environments:
Pr Ps Gs Gr C d ( with 2,5...5)
2
Ps Pr
As Ar
Gs Gr 4
d

Distance Dependency
Radar : Pr ~ 1/ d4
Pr ~ 1/ d^4 P = * P
free space scattering on object:
A --> * A
P = Ps / d^2
Ps
Mobile communications: Pr ~ 1/ d3 ... 1/ d5

scattering/
reflections
scattering on objects
Ps
multipath
propagation
Pr ~ 1/ d^3

Propagation Loss
Basic loss formula
L L0 log( d ) losses are exponential with distance
loss at reference point (e.g. 1km) EIRP level
coupling loss
= L0
Clutter loss factors reference
land-usage classes distance
usually stated in dB/decade 20 dB/dec
free
e.g. space
: 20 dB/dec
40 dB/dec 30 dB/dec
open countryside 25 dB/dec
suburban areas 30 0,1km 1km 10km
dB/dec
urban area 40 dB/dec
22 historic city centre
NOKIA 1999 EXPLAIN_3.PPT/ 24.8.99 / WORKSHOP >45
Signal Attenuation
Mixed land usage types on propagation
path
25 dB/dec
20 dB/dec
30 dB/dec path loss
40 ..50 dB/dec

Mixed Path Loss
Path loss
open: 25 dB/dec urban: 40 ..50 dB/dec open: 25 dB/dec

signal
level
actual
signal open area curve
level urban curve
distance

Propagation Models

Propagation Models
Propagation models that are being used in Nokia
tools:
Okumura-Hata
The most commonly used statistical model
Walfish-Ikegami
Statistical model especially for urban environments
Juul-Nyholm
Same kind of a prediction tool as Hata, this model
has different equation for predictions beyond radio
horizon (~20km)
Ray-tracing
Deterministic prediction tool for microcellular
environments

Okumura-Hata Model
Adapted for 900 MHz, Europe
Different land usage classes
L A B log f 1382
. log hb a (hm )
(44.9 6.55 log hb ) log d Lmorpho
with
f frequency in MHz additional attenuation du
h BS antenna height [m] to land usage classes
a(h) function of MS antenna height
d distance between BS and MS [km]
A= 69.55, B = 26.16 (for 150 .. 1000 MHz)

A= 46.3 , B = 33.9 (for 1500 ..2000MHz)
Morpho Types
Urban small cells, 40..50 dB/dec attenuation
Forest heavy absorption; 30..40 dB/dec;

differs with season (foliage losses)
Open, farmlands easy, smooth propagation

conditions
Water signal propagates very easily

dangerous !
Mountain faces strong reflections, long echos
Etc many morpho types have been defined

Walfish-Ikegami Model
Model for urban microcellular propagation
Assumes regular city layout (Manhattan
grid)
Total path loss consists of two parts:
LOS NLOS
line-of-sight loss roof-to-street diffraction and
scatter loss
d mobile environment losses
h
w
b
Obstructed Path
Line-of-sight path (LOS)
Use free space propagation
Applicable for microwave & satellite links
Non-line-of-sight path (NLOS)

Heavy diffraction, refraction situations
Many models exist in literature, none is
satisfying
Great uncertainties in modelling
Needs detailed building databases (vectorial
information)
Use ray-tracing models?
Manhattan grid
model

Ray Tracing
Deterministic model for microcellular

environments
Launch rays into every direction of space
Certain number of rays calculated
Reflections calculated based on dielectric
coefficients
Very high computational load
Mirror image method also r
possible
single point
signal source

Antenna Systems

Far Field Distance
Transport mechanism
electromagnetic energy transport by constant
exchange between electrical and magnetic
field : E-wave and H-wave
E- field
H- field
Poynting- vector (energy) : E x H

E- and H-wave are perpendicular at distances
larger than the far field distance (plane
wave)
2 D2
rR

Coupling Losses
Energy in antenna only partly
converts to electromagnetic waves
Radiated energy is only a fraction of

received energy
Radiated energy is measurable only

in a reference distance from
antenna
(minimum = far field distance!)
Coupling losses are ~ 50 ... 60 dB

for first few meters, then use free-
space propagation losses

Antenna Systems
Antennas on base
station
receiver antenna
receiver diversity
antenna
transmit antenna
Transition point to /
from radio wave
propagation
Take
Bestevery effort
possible to make optimum
signal
use of the available signal

Antenna Categories
Omnidirectional antennas
same radiation patterns in all
directions
useful in flat rural areas.
Directional antennas
concentrate main energy into
certain direction
larger communication range
useful in cities, urban areas,
sectorised sites

Antennas
Eurocell panels
mounted on a
church.
Eurocell F-Panels
mounted on the wall
of an industrial
building.

Antenna Types
Dipoles
most general type: omnidirectional
Arrays
combinations of many smaller elements
high gains, special radiation patterns,
phased array antennas ( ---> smart
antennas )
Yagi
very common, high gain, directional antennas
often used as TV- antennas
Paraboles
very high gain, extremely narrow beam-widths
commonly used for line-of-sight paths
(satellites...)

Antenna Characteristics
Antenna gain
the measure for the antennas
capability to transmit / extract
energy to/ from the propagation
medium (air)
dB over isotropic antenna (dBi)
dB over Hertz dipole (dBd)
Antenna gain depends on

microwave ant. : w ~ 50 .. 60
mechanical size: A
optical ant. : w ~ 80 .. 85 %
effective antenna aperture area:
w 4
Antenna
frequency G : 2 A w
bandgain
Antenna Characteristics
Lobes H- plane E- plane
main lobes
side / back lobes
front-to-back ratio Input 7 /16 female
Connector position bottom
Halfpower beam- Frequency range 870 - 960 MHz
width VSWR < 1,3
Gain 15,5 dBi
(3 dB- beam width) Impedance 50 Ohm
Polarisation vertical
Antenna downtilting Front-to-back-ratio > 25 dB
Half-power beam H-plane:
width 65 / E-plane: 13
Polarisation
Max. power 500 Watt (50 C ambient temp.)
Antenna bandwidth Weight 6 kg
Wind load frontal : 220 N (at 150 km/h
Antenna impedance lateral: 140 N (at 150 km/h)
Max. wind velocityrear : 490 N (at 150 km/h)
Packing size 1410 x 270 x 140 mm
Mechanical size Height / width / depth1290 / 255 / 105 mm
40
windload
NOKIA 1999 EXPLAIN_3.PPT/ 24.8.99 / WORKSHOP
Radiation Patterns
Example: patterns for high-gain directional
antenna
Horizontal pattern Vertical pattern

Antenna Down Tilting
5..8 deg
Antenna (down-) tilting

improve spot coverage
signal attenuation
30 .. 40dB/decade
reduce interference
signal attenuation
~20dB/decade
What is the difference between electrical

and mechanical down tilt?

Coupling Between Antennas
Horizontal separation
main lobe
needs approx. 5 distance for
sufficient decoupling
antenna patterns superimposed
if distance too close
Vertical separation 5 .. 10
distance of 1 provides good

decoupling values
1
good for RX /TX decoupling
Minimum coupling loss

Installation Examples
Recommended decoupling
TX - TX: ~20dB 0,2m
TX - RX: ~40dB
Horizontal decoupling distance depends on

antenna gain
omnidirectional.: 5 ..
horizontal rad. pattern 20m
directional : 1 ... 3m
Omnidirectional antennas
RX + TX with vertical separation (Bajonett)
RX, RX div. , TX with vertical separation
(fork)
Vertical decoupling is much more effective

Installation Examples
Directional antennas
sectorised sites
three-sector cell
with RX diversity
horizontal
separation

Antenna Cables
Cable types
coaxial cables : 1/2, 7/8, 1 5/8 jumper
(2 m)
losses approx. 10 .. 4 dB/ 100m
==> power dissipation is
exponential with cable length ! !
40 .. 70m
Connector losses approx. 1 dB per
connection (jumper cables etc..)
Thick antenna cables
lower losses per length
large bending radii jumper
much more expensive (2 m)
Keep antenna cables short

Antenna Cables
Typical values for antenna

cables
Type diameter 900MHz 1800MHz
(mm) dB/100m dB/100m
3/8 10 10 14
5/8 17 6 9
7/8 25 4 6
1 5/8 47 2 3

Nearby Obstacles Requirement
(1/3)

(2/3)
Height Clearance vs Antenna Tilt
h (m)
9,0
8,0
7,0 h
h
From 0 up to 6
down tilt
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Roof Edge d (m)

(3/3)

Distributed Antennas
Leaky feeders
cables with very high loss per length unit
=> distributed antenna
formerly often used for tunnel coverage
very expensive
typ. losses: 4 ... 40 dB/100m
Fiber-optic distribution 50 Ohm

coupling loss: ~ 60 dB (at 1m dist.)
distribute RF signal via (very thin) fiber-optic cables
radiate from discrete antenna points at remote
locations

Repeater
Use of repeaters to relay signal into shadowed areas
:
behind hills
into valleys
into buildings
Needs a donor cell (host cell)
Channel selective repeater or wide-band repeater
decoupling amplification +15
dB needed

Repeater Overview
Donor Site Repeater Antenna

Donor Antenna
Location Site of a CR
Donor Cell
MS Cell Repeater
MS
Combined Coverage

Interference Caused By Delay
Signal to the MS can travel directly from the donor
cell (delay0) or through a CR
delay= (delay1 + delayR + delay2) - delay0
if delay > equaliser window interferences
delay1 delayR
Donor Site Repeater Antenna
Donor Antenna
delay0 Location Site of a CR

delay2
Donor Cell
Cell Repeater
Interference Area
Mobile

Diversity

Diversity Techniques
Time diversity t interleaving
Frequency diversity f frequency hopping
Space diversity multiple antennas
Polarisation diversity crosspolar antennas
Multipath diversity equaliser,

rake receiver

Diversity Reception
Selection diversity
Maximum ratio G1 1
combining
pre-detector C/N
measuring
Phase
measuring +
combining:
G2 2
==> add signals
in correct
G3 3
phasing
C/I-
improvement

Coverage Improvement?
Diversity gain depends on environment
Is there coverage improvement by
diversity ?
antenna diversity
equivalent to 5dB more signal
strength
more A
path loss
1,7 acceptable
A ?? in
link budget
R(div) ~ 1,3 R 70% more coverage per cel
higher coverage range
needs less cells in total ??
R
True only (in theory)

if environment is infinitely large and
flat

Link Budget

Link Budget
Link budget calculations consist of
two parts:
1) Power budget calculations
2) Cell size evaluations
Communication must be two-way
Power budget
must
be balanced
Link Budget Factors
In addition to BTS and MS powers
and sensitivities, several other
factors need to be taken into
account when doing Link Budget
calculations
These factors can be classified
into three categories:
1) Link Budget loss factors
2) Link Budget gain factors
3) Link Budget margins

Link Budget Loss Factors
At base station
connectors cables &
connectors
cables
isolator ~3..5 dB losses
==> 50 ..70% of
many meters
combiner signal energy is lost
before even reaching
filter the transmit antenna
At mobile station
filter
body loss
polarisation of combiner
antenna
BS output

Link Budget Gain Factors
Antenna gain
half-power beamwidth
mechanical size
antenna types
Diversity gain
Diversity can be implemented in many
ways
Frequency hopping
Improves average link quality, but is not
typically taken into account in link budget
calculations

Link Budget Margins
Fast fading margin

Fast variations in field strength levels that
are caused by multipath reception has to be
taken into account in calculating the
maximum allowable path loss
Slow fading margin

Slow fading that is caused by shadowing has
a direct effect on the location probability; this
has to be taken into account in evaluating
cell sizes
Penetration losses

Power Budget: Downlink
Antenna
Gain = 16dBi
36 dBm
52 dBm
path loss = 154 dB
Feeder
Loss = 4 dB
- 102 dBm
40 dBm
Rx Sensitivity
- 102 dBm
combin
er
loss = 5 WLL subscribers
Tx
dB Power
45 dBm (20W)

Power Budget: Uplink
Antenna
Gain = 16
Diversity
-dBi
101 dBm Gain = 4 dB
- 121 dBm
Feeder path loss = 154 dB

Loss = 4 dB
33 dBm
- 105 dBm
Tx Power
33 dBm (2W)
Rx Sensitivity
-105 dB
WLL subscribers

Power Budget Conclusions
Power budget is typically in balance when the
BTS has much higher Tx power than the MS
Reasons for this are:
Diversity gain is for uplink only
BTS receiver sensitivity is better than for
the MS
When diversity is in use, the cell size is likely
to be downlink limited

Cell Sizes

Cell Size Evaluations (1/4)
After the maximum allowable path loss has
been determined, the cell size can be
evaluated
Determination is done by using basic
propagation prediction formulas:
Okumura-Hata
Walfish-Ikegami

When calculating cell range for medium
value of log-normally distributed signal, the
result is 50% location probability by the cell
edge and ~75% location probability over
the cell area
We typically want to have 90% location
probability over the cell area
Slow fading margin need to

be deducted

Penetration losses have to be added as
mean value, and increased standard
deviation need to be taken into account
as well
1
type mean sigma 0,9
0,8
urban building 15 dB 7 dB 0,7

suburban 10 dB 7 dB 0,6
pass. car 8 dB 5 dB 0,5
0,4
Total mean m1 m2 ... mN 0,3
0,2
Total deviation 21 22 ... 2N 0,1
-3
-2
-1
3
Add mean values,
superimpose standard
deviations
COMMON INFO DU U SU F O
MS antenna height (m): 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5
BS antenna height (m): 30,0 30,0 30,0 45,0 45,0
Standard Deviation (dB): 7,0 7,0 7,0 7,0 7,0
BPL Average (dB): 15,0 12,0 10,0 6,0 6,0
Standard Deviation indoors (dB): 10,0 10,0 10,0 10,0 10,0
OKUMURA-HATA (OH) DU U SU F O
Area Type Correction (dB) 0,0 -4,0 -6,0 -10,0 -15,0
WALFISH-IKEGAMI (WI) DU U SU F O
Roads width (m): 30,0 30,0 30,0 30,0 30,0
Road orientation angle (degrees): 90,0 90,0 90,0 90,0 90,0
Building separation (m): 40,0 40,0 40,0 40,0 40,0
Buildings average height (m): 30,0 30,0 30,0 30,0 30,0
INDOOR COVERAGE DU U SU F O
Propagation Model OH OH OH OH OH
Slow Fading Margin + BPL (dB): 22,8 19,8 17,8 13,8 13,8
Coverage Threshold (dBV/m): 59,1 56,1 54,1 50,1 50,1
Coverage Threshold (dBm): -77,2 -80,2 -82,2 -86,2 -86,2
Location Probability over Cell Area(L%): 90,0% 90,0% 90,0% 90,0% 90,0%
Cell Range (km): 1,33 2,10 2,72 5,70 7,99
OUTDOOR COVERAGE DU U SU F O
Propagation Model OH OH OH OH OH
Slow Fading Margin (dB): 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5
Coverage Threshold (dBV/m): 40,8 40,8 40,8 40,8 40,8
Coverage Threshold (dBm): -95,5 -95,5 -95,5 -95,5 -95,5
Location Probability over Cell Area(L%): 90,0% 90,0% 90,0% 90,0% 90,0%
Cell Range (km): 4,39 5,70 6,50 10,69 14,99

Cell Size Calculation
After cell range has been determined,

cell sizes can be calculated
When calculating cell sizes for
dimensional purposes, traditional
hexagonal model is used
R
R
Omni Bi-sector Tri-sector

A = 2,6 R12 A= 1,73 R22 A = 1,95 R23

Cell Area Terms
Dominance area
Service area
Coverage area
cell coverage range
cell service range
dominance range
6dB hysteresis margin
coverage limit

Hexagons vs. Cells
Three hexagons Three cells

Cell Sizes
Achievable cell sizes depend on

Frequency band used (450, 900, 1800 MHz)
Surroundings, environment
Link budget figures
Antenna types
Antenna positioning
Minimum required signal levels

Interference

Interference
Signal quality =
sum of all wanted signals carrier
sum of all unwanted signal =
interference
wanted signal atmospheric

noise
other signals
GSM specifications : C / I >= 9 dB for nominal

performance
Effects of Interference
Degradation of signal quality
Introduces bit errors

repairable errors: channel coding, error correction
irreducible errors: phase distortions (random FM
noise)
Interference situation is
non-reciprocal: uplink if. downlink if.
unsymmetrical: different situation at MS and BS
Concept of carrier-to-interference ratio : C/I

Signal Quality in GSM
RX Quality (RXQUAL parameter)
RXQUAL classes 0... 7 (bit error rate
before all decoding/ corrections):
RXQUAL Mean BER BER range

class (%) from... to
0 0,14 < 0,2%
good
1 0,28 0,2 ... 0,4 %
usable 2 0,57 0,4 ... 0,8 %
signal 3 1,13 0,8 ... 1,6 %
4 2,26 1,6 ... 3,2 %
acceptable
5 4,53 3,2 ... 6,4 %
unusable 6 9,05 6,4 ... 12,8 %
signal 7 18,1 > 12,8 %

Sources of Interference
Re-use of (own) frequencies

Multipath components (long
echoes)
External interferences
Network performance shall be

interference-limited rather than
coverage- limited
Push interference
limits
as far as possible

Co-channel Interference
Unavoidable, home-made interference
Major contribution to total interferences
Caused by re-use of same frequency in the network
Simplified case: 7-cluster in regular hexagon pattern
Carrier : R-
Interferer : 6* D-
f2 f6
f3
f3
f5
f5 f4
f4 f7 f2

C R
f7 f2
f7 f2 f6
I 6 *D f6
R f3
f3
f3 f5
f5 f4
f5 f4 D
f4 f2
Ancient concept !
f7 f2 f6
f6 f3
for demonstration only f3 f5
f4
f5
f4

Trade-Off
Trade-off of C/I versus frequency-efficiency and
capacity
low C/I values : tight re-use ==> high efficiency, high
capacity
high C/I value : good signal quality, but low efficiency
digital systems
quality
analog systems
C/ I ratio (dB)
6 9 12 15 18

Long Delayed Echoes
Interference caused by long delays (echos):
equaliser window 16
amplitude
long echos, out of equaliser w
==> interference contribution
delay time (sec)

direct nearby scatterers
path
1 sec delay = 300m

16 sec delay = 4800m max. excess
distance
Noise
Contributions to noise
physics: thermal noise
N=k*T*B [k=1,38.10-23J/K]
technology:
- amplifiers
- oscillators
- filters f0
Noise figure of receiver parts as quality criteria

Interference Reduction
Methods
Good frequency plan
Proper Antennas:
1st
choice (down-)tilting
of
site locations beamwidth
! reduction
Power control reorientation
Discontinuous tx (DTX) bad location
Frequency hopping*
Adaptive antennas
Dynamic Channel Allocation
good location
* as a side effect -> interference averaging

Discontinuous Transmission,
DTX
Switch transmitter off in speech
pauses and silence periods
- both sides transmit only silence
updates (SID frames)
- comfort noise generated by
transcoder
VAD: Voice Activity Detection
(transcoder function)
Transcoder is informed on use of DTX/
VAD
(in call set-up)
Battery saving
interference reduction

Frequency Hopping, FH
Diversity technique
frequency diversity against fast fading effects
useful for static or slow-moving mobiles

Base Band Hopping
signal hops between TRXs, (min. 2 TRX)
NOT on BCCH timeslot
Radio Frequency (Synthesised) Hopping

timeslots hop between different frequencies
NOT on 1st TRX (BCCH)
need a wideband combiner
Frequency diversity for static mobiles

side-effect: interference averaging

Power Control, PC
GSM : 15 power steps (2 dB each)
BSC in command
- level or quality-driven or both
Use power control in both uplink &
downlink
- doesn't affect the Link Balance
Minimise interference in network
Save battery life-time
signal
level target level
e.g. -85 dm
PC not allowed
on BCCH carrier
time

Adaptive Antennas
Idea:
to shape antenna radiation patterns such, that
they focus on the users location ( in real-
time ! )
radiation patterns are controlled by phase-
shifted signals fed to each partial antenna
direct nulls in ant. pattern towards interferers
Problems
need huge computational power
real-time operation
Status
experimental stage in several networks
commercially available not before 2001

Dynamic Channel Allocation
Under research and development
every BS measures interference situation in
the entire band
BS allocates most suitable radio channel on
a per-call basis
Constantly changing pattern of allocations and
interferences
Eliminates need for fixed frequency allocation:
every frequency is available in every cell
==> max. network capacity
spread spectrum situation,
frequency re-use rate = 1

Interference Reduction
Methods
% of area
with acceptable
100 interference level
design goal
frequenc
y hopping
use larger
bandwidth
90
good frequency
tight re-use planning
power control
DTX
80
# of radio
channels used
low high

Achievable Gains
Achieved gains are no RF signal gains but
equivalent gains in bit error rates!
Power control: ~2,5 dB C/I
DTX: +3 dB C/I
Frq. Hopping: +5 dB sensitivity gain for

MS
(frequency diversity)
+2 dB C/I (interference averaging)
+2 dB channel coding
(time distribution of
interference)

Interference Planning
Dimensioning criterion :
How much of area to be covered is tolerated to be
interfered?
Calculate total cell outage area :
outage area = 1 - serviced_area
service_area = (1 - interfered_area) * (1 -
uncovered_area)
3% Service_area = 93% * 92%
4% 8% Outage area = 1 - 0,8556 =14,4%

Explain 3

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Mobile Radio Link

Radio Wave Propagation + Propagation

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Calculations in dB (deci-Bel) -30 dBm = 1 W

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Theory of wave propagation is an exact science

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amplitude long echos, out of equaliser window:

Reciprocal (in fieldstrength)

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No hard limitation at 250 km/h

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2 sec 4 sec 6 sec time

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Most general form of distribution

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Envelope signal is composed from many

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Mobile communications: Pr ~ 1/ d3 ... 1/ d5

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loss at reference point (e.g. 1km) EIRP level

usually stated in dB/decade 20 dB/dec

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open: 25 dB/dec urban: 40 ..50 dB/dec open: 25 dB/dec

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A= 69.55, B = 26.16 (for 150 .. 1000 MHz)

Urban small cells, 40..50 dB/dec attenuation

Forest heavy absorption; 30..40 dB/dec;

Open, farmlands easy, smooth propagation

Water signal propagates very easily

Mountain faces strong reflections, long echos

Etc many morpho types have been defined

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Non-line-of-sight path (NLOS)

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Deterministic model for microcellular

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Poynting- vector (energy) : E x H

Radiated energy is only a fraction of

Radiated energy is measurable only

Coupling losses are ~ 50 ... 60 dB

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Antenna gain depends on

Horizontal pattern Vertical pattern

Antenna (down-) tilting

What is the difference between electrical

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distance of 1 provides good

Minimum coupling loss