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Physiology of Memory
and Learning
 Memory an Learning

Learning and memory are higher-level

functions of the nervous system.
Learning is the neural mechanism by which a
person changes his or her behavior as a result
of experiences.
Memory is the mechanism for storing what is
learned.
 Learning
Def
It is the ability of previous experiences to modify the inborn reactions
or create new ones or
Itis the acquisition of knowledge or skills as a result of experiences and
consequently it can alter behavior on basis of this experiences
Learning is the process by which we acquire knowledge about the world
(Eric Kandel, 2000)
Learning refers to a more or less permanent change in behavior which
occurs as a result of practice (Kimble, 1961)
 Learning
Types
 Associative Learning
In this type of learning, the subject learns about the
relationship that can associate one stimulus to another
It is a conditioned process which results in the
formation of learned responses called conditioned
reflexes
Conditioned reflex is an automatic response to a
stimulus (conditioned stimulus) which did not
previously evoke response acquired by repeatedly
associating this stimulus with another stimulus
(unconditioned stimulus)

 a) Classic Conditioning
This type of conditioned reflexes was 1 st described
by Pavlov (Russian Physiologist)
He noticed that his experimental dogs salivate just
on seeing the animal house keeper who used to feed
Some sort of association had developed in the brains
of these animals between visual stimuli related to
seeing the housekeeper (conditioned stimulus) and
food ingestion (unconditioned stimulus for
salivation when food is placed in mouth)
a) Classic Conditioning
 a) Classic Conditioning
This type of conditioning can be integrated a different
levels of CNS
Requirements:
1) CS applied before US
2) Pairing must occur several times
3) No separation between the CS and US
a) Classic Conditioning
 b) Operant Conditioning
In this type of conditioning the subject is taught to
perform some voluntary action in response to a
particular stimulus (visual or sound stimulus) that
alert him to perform the learned action in order to
obtain reward to avoid punishment
Alerting signal acts as conditioned stimulus whereas
pleasant or unpleasant event that follow
performance of learned response represents
unconditioned stimulus
b) Operant Conditioning
 b) Operant Conditioning
Example:
Car driver and traffic light
The car driver stops the car on seeing the red traffic
light and drives on seeing the green light
Integration:
Hippocampus and amygdala are important in linking
the stimulus to the operation
Integration occurs in CC especially orbitofrontal
cortex
 Non-associative Learning
In this type of learning, the subject learns whether
to ignore or react to a certain stimulus
It is a simple way of learning that does not need
association between 2 stimuli
It is 2 types;
A) Habituation
B) Sensitization
 Habituation
It is a gradual decrease in the response to stimulus
when it is frequently repeated
It is simple and widespread
Examples:
A loud and unexpected sound produces looking
towards the source of sound, change in heart rate,
and change in blood pressure
If the sound turns to be insignificant, its repetition
results in little or no response
 Habituation
It is a stimulus specific e.g. traffic noise and mother
and baby
Mechanism:
Repetition of the stimulus close Ca channels in
presynaptic neurons Ca influx release of
neurotransmitters behavioral responses to the
stimulus
 Habituation
Experiments performed in Aplysia californica
 Sensitization
It is a potentiation in the response to stimulus (painful
or pleasant) when it is frequently repeated
It is simple and widespread
Examples:
One normally ignore stray dogs by habituation, but if
he is bitten, he will become more attentive and
develop aversion reaction to them for long time
Stimulus specific:
One who is bitten by dogs will not be afraid of
donkeys or cows
 Sensitization
Mechanism:
Strongor noxious stimulus facilitating
interneurons (serotonin) cAMP in presynaptic
neurons block of K channels depolarization of
presynaptic neurons keep Ca channels open
Ca influx release of neurotransmitters
behavioral response to mild stimuli
Sensitization
Sensitization
 Memory
Def
memory is the process by which that knowledge of the world is
encoded, stored, and later retrieved (Kandel (2000),
Memory is a phase of learning

learning has three stages: 1. acquiring, wherein one

masters a new activity . . . or memorizes verbal
material . . . 2. retaining the new acquisition for a
period of time; and 3. remembering, which enables one
to reproduce the learned act or memorized material
 Memory
Def
It is the ability of the brain to store information and recall it
at later time or
Capacity of the brain:
Itis limited (total capacity of brain is 3x 108 bits)
So, informations entering brain are either;

A. Selected and stored (1%) most important

B. Other (99%) are neglected and forgotten
 Memory
Information Unit:
Itis bit
A bit is the simplest form of sensory experience i.e. figure,
sound, touch , or smell
All sensory systems send information to brain at 50 bit/sec
E.g. during reading 40 bits/sec, during mental calculation 12
bits/ sec, and during counting 3 bits /sec
Average rate of flow of information is 20 bits/sec
For learning a language about 40- 50 millions bits should be
stored in memory
To store 1 bit, 10 neurons are required
 Memory
Classification of memory:
 Sensory Memory. 1
Duration: very short (about 0.5 seconds)
Capacity: very small (15-20 bits)
Entry into storage: automatic during perception
Access to storage: very rapid
1. Vision: iconic memory
2. Hearing: echoic memory

Mechanism:
1. Stimulation of reverberating circuits repeated
activation of neurons
2. Synaptic sensitization if sensory experience coupled with
painful stimuli
 Sensory Memory. 1
Mechanism:
3. Posttetanic potentiation: multiple stimuli at
presynaptic terminal Ca content in presynaptic
terminal release of neurotransmitters
Mechanism of forgetting:
1. Fading (spontaneous and gradual decline in the amount
of information)
2. Extinction (spont. disappearance of information from
memory)
 2. Short-term Memory
Duration: (min to hours)
Capacity
Small bits of informations
Millers magical number: 72 chunks of information
Entry into storage: verbalization (describing the
items in words)
Recall or access to storage: rapid
Mechanism:
Made by formation of temporary memory traces
 2. Short-term Memory
Memory trace:
Is a newly developed pathway or signal transmission
resulting from facilitation of new synapses creation of
new circuits in the brain
This occurs by
1. Long term potentiation of synapses
2. Changes in physical properties of postsynaptic
membrane sensitivity to chemical transmitters
Mechanism of forgetting:
New information replaces old
 3. Long-term Memory
Duration: (hours to years )
Capacity
Very large
Information stored according to its significance
Entry into storage: practice or and punishment or
reward
Recall or access to storage: slow
Mechanism:
Made by formation of memory engrams (long-
lasting memory traces) formed by structural
changes in presynaptic terminals
 Long-term potentiation
1. The binding of glutamate to its NMDA receptors and simultaneous
depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane causes the NMDA
receptor channels to open.
2. This opening of the NMDA receptor channels allows Ca2+ to
enter.
3. The entry of Ca2+ into the postsynaptic neuron causes long-term
potentiation in that neuron.
4. The entry of Ca2+ into the postsynaptic neuron also activates
nitric oxide synthase, causing nitric oxide production.
5. The nitric oxide then acts as a retrograde messenger, diffusing into
the presynaptic neuron and somehow causing it to release more
neurotransmitter.
 3. Long-term Memory
Mechanism:
memory engrams made up by;
1. increase in number of vesicles
2. increase in number of presynaptic terminals
3. increase in release sites of chemical transmitters
4. generation of new receptor sites
5. long term potentiation
Engrams remain for long time up to several years
Formation of new engrams requires protein
synthesis
 3. Long-term Memory
Mechanism of forgetting:
1. Proactive inhibition by previously stored materials
(more common)
2. Retroactive inhibition by subsequently stored
material
 4. Permanent Memory
Duration: (permanent)
Capacity
Very large
Entry into storage: very frequent practice
Recall or access to storage: very rapid (recall not
affected by brain injury (like name, write, and read)
Mechanism:
Advanced stage of long-term(permanent engrams)
Mechanism of forgetting :
No forgetting
 Phases of memory
Encoding-information for each memory is assembled from the
different sensory systems and translated into whatever form necessary
to be remembered. This is presumably the domain of the association
cortices and perhaps other areas.
Consolidation-converting the encoded information into a form that
can be permanently stored. The hippocampal and surrounding areas
apparently accomplish this.
Storage-the actual deposition of the memories into the final resting
placesthis is though to be in association cortex.
Retrieval-memories are of little use if they cannot be read out for later
use. Less is known about this process.

 Encoding of memory
It means classification and placing memory items in their proper
memory stores in brain
Brain areas concerned with encoding of long term memory;
1. Hippocampus (major central role) all bits of information go to it
first
2. Amygdala (emotional memory)
3. Basal forebrain (Nucleus basalis or Meynerts nucleus)
4. Noecortex
5. Mammillary body of hypothalamus
6. Orbitofrontal cortex
 Encoding of memory
Select important informations
All bits (reward or punishment)

Hippocampus Mamillary
store body
Amygdala
store
(Temporal lobe) Cholinergic projections

Cholinergic projections

Cholinergic projections Orbitofrontal

Basal forebrain
Meynerts Nucleus cortex
Neocortex
store
 Consolidation of memory
It means the process of conversion
of STM to LTM
It takes from 5 min to 2 hrs
It is interrupted by

1. Deep anaesthesia
2. Brain concussion
3. Electroconvulsive therapy
 Brain Regions involved in Consolidation of
memory

Hippocampus
Anterior & lateral
temporal lobe,
Medial temporal lobe
Amygdala
 Hippocampus and Consolidation of memory

The hippocampal region is critical for the consolidation of

information in long-term memory
Evidence
Three major excitatory neural components of the hippocampus
Perforant pathway
forms excitatory connections between the parahippocampal cortex
and the granule cells of the dentate gyrus
Mossy fibers
connect the granule cells of the dentate gyrus to the CA3 pyramidal
cells
Schaffer collaterals
connect the CA3 pyramidal cells to the CA1 pyramidal cells
 Disorders of Memory
1) Amnesia loss or impairment of memory
It may be;
a) Retrograde amnesia
It means inability to recall memories from the past
(retrograde: going backwards), that is from the long- term
memory stores.
Transient brain malfunction erase 1ry memory
It usually follows a traumatic event that interferes with the
normal activity of the brain, such as a strong brain
concussion and vascular strokes
 Disorders of Memory
b)Anterograde amnesia
It is the inability to store new information in the long-term
memory for later recall.
It usually results from lesions of the medial portions of the
temporal lobe, a region that include the hippocampus,
amygdala, and the adjacent areas of the temporal

c)psychogenic or hysterical amnesia

Rare
Sudden loss of memory of all information
Exposure to severe psychological stress
 Disorders of Memory
2) Senile dementia and Alzheimer disease
It occurs in old age (senile dementia) and middle age
(Alzheimer), but it can occur at any age
It is characterized by impairment of memory, lack of
concentration, inattentiveness
Incidence: 10-15 % after age of 65 years
Mechanism:
Loss of cholinergic terminals that diffuse from nucleus
basalis to neocortex, amygdala and hippocampus
 K S
A N
T H

Dr. Abdel Aziz Hussein, Mansoura Faculty of Medicine