Life-Span Development

Twelfth Edition

CHAPTER 3: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

AND BIRTH

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 Prenatal Development

Conception occurs when a single sperm cell from the

male unites with an ovum (egg)
Prenatal development is divided into 3 periods and lasts
approximately 266-280 days:

Germinal period: first 2 weeks after conception, zygote created

Embryonic period: occurs from 2 to 8 weeks after conception

Fetal period: begins 2 months after conception and lasts until

birth

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 Prenatal Development

Germinal Period: period of development that

takes place the first two weeks after conception
Rapid cell division by the zygote
Blastocyst: group of cells after about 1 week

Trophoblast: outer layer of cells that later provides

nutrition and support for the embryo
Implantation: attachment of the zygote to the uterine
wall; occurs 10 to 14 days after conception

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Prenatal Development

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 Prenatal Development

Embryonic Period: development from 2 to 8 weeks

after conception
Begins when blastocyst attaches to uterine wall
Mass of cells is now called an embryo
Three layers of cells: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
Amnion: a bag that contains a clear fluid (amniotic fluid) in
which the embryo floats
Umbilical Cord: connects the baby to the placenta
Placenta: group of tissues containing mother and babys
intertwined blood vessels
Organogenesis: process of organ formation during the first
two months of prenatal development

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Prenatal Development

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 Prenatal Development

Fetal Period: development from two months

after conception to birth
Rapid growth and change
Viability: the age at which a fetus has a chance of
surviving outside the womb
Currently 24 weeks; changes with advances in medical
technology

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 Prenatal Development

The Brain:
Babies have approximately 100 billion neurons (nerve
cells) at birth
Architecture of the brain takes shape during the first two
trimesters
Increases in connectivity and functioning occur from the
third trimester to 2 years of age
Neural tube develops 18 to 24 days after conception
Anencephaly
Spina bifida

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 Prenatal Development

The Brain:
Neurogenesis: the generation of new neurons
Begins at fifth prenatal week and continues throughout
prenatal period
Neuronal migration: cells move outward from their
point of origin to their appropriate locations
Occurs approximately 6 to 24 weeks after conception

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 Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratogen: any agent that can cause a birth defect or

negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes
Drugs (prescription, nonprescription)
Incompatible blood types

Environmental pollutants

Infectious diseases

Nutritional deficiencies

Maternal stress

Advanced age of parent

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 Hazards to Prenatal Development

Severity of damage to the unborn depends on:

Dose

Genetic susceptibility
Time of exposure
Critical period: a fixed time period during which certain
experiences or events can have a long-lasting effect on
development

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Hazards to Prenatal Development

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 Hazards to Prenatal Development

Prescription and Non-prescription Drugs:

Many women are given drugs while pregnant
Some are safe; some can cause devastating birth defects
Known prescription teratogens include antibiotics,
some antidepressants, some hormones, and Accutane
Non-prescription teratogens include aspirin and diet
pills

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 Hazards to Prenatal Development

Psychoactive Drugs: drugs that act on the nervous

system to alter states of consciousness, modify
perceptions, and change moods
Includes caffeine, alcohol, nicotine
Caffeine:
small risk of miscarriage and low birth weight for those
consuming more than 150 mg. daily
Increased risk of fetal death for those consuming more
than 300 mg. daily
FDA recommends not consuming caffeine or consuming it
sparingly

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 Hazards to Prenatal Development

Alcohol:
Fetal
alcohol syndrome: abnormalities in newborn due to
mothers heavy use of alcohol in pregnancy
Facial deformities
Defective limbs, face, heart
Most have below-average intelligence; some are mentally retarded
Even light to moderate drinking during pregnancy has
been associated with negative effects on the fetus
FDA recommends no alcohol consumption during
pregnancy

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 Hazards to Prenatal Development

Nicotine:
Maternal smoking can negatively influence prenatal
development, birth, and postnatal development
Associated with:
Preterm births and low birth weight
Fetal and neonatal death
Respiratory problems
SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)
ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)

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 Hazards to Prenatal Development

Illegal drugs that harm during pregnancy:

Cocaine

Methamphetamine

Marijuana

Heroin

Incompatible blood types (Rh factor)

Can cause mothers immune system to produce
antibodies that will attack the fetus

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 Hazards to Prenatal Development

Environmental hazards:
Radiation

Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes

Maternal Diseases:
Sexually transmitted diseases (syphilis, genital herpes,
AIDS)
Rubella

Diabetes

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 Hazards to Prenatal Development

Maternal factors:
Maternal diet and nutrition
Maternal age

Emotional states and stress

Paternal factors:
Exposure to teratogens
Paternal age

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 Prenatal Care

Prenatal care typically includes:

Screening for manageable conditions and treatable
diseases
Medical care

Educational, social, and nutritional services

Centering Pregnancy: relationship-centered

program
Importance of prenatal care

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 Percentage of U.S. Women Using Timely
Prenatal Care: 1990 to 2004
100
1990
90
2004
80
70
60
50
Percentage 40
30
20
10
0
African
Non-Latino American Latino
White women women women

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 The Birth Process

Three stages of birth:

Stage 1: uterine contractions begin at 15 to 20 minutes
apart and last up to 1 minute, becoming closer and more
intense with time
Causes the cervix to stretch and open to about 10 cm
This stage lasts an average of 12 to 14 hours
Stage 2: babys head begins to move through dilated
cervix opening and eventually emerges from the mothers
body
This stage lasts approximately 45 minutes
Stage 3: umbilical cord, placenta, and other membranes
are detached and expelled (afterbirth)

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 The Birth Process

Childbirth Setting and Attendants:

99%of deliveries take place in hospitals
Home delivery or freestanding birth center
Compared to doctors, midwives:
Typically spend more time than doctors counseling and educating
patients
Provide more emotional support
Are typically present during the entire labor and delivery process
Doulas provide continuous physical, emotional, and
educational support for mother before, during, and after
childbirth

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 Methods of Childbirth

Key choices involve use of medication and

when to have a cesarean delivery
Typical pain medication:
Analgesia: pain relief
Anesthesia: blocks sensation in an area of the body
(can also block consciousness)
Epidural block
Oxytocics: synthetic hormones used to stimulate
contractions
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 Methods of Childbirth

Natural childbirth: aims to reduce pain by

decreasing fear and using breathing/relaxation
techniques
Prepared childbirth (Lamaze): special breathing
techniques; education about anatomy and
physiology
Basic belief is that, when information and support are
provided, women know how to give birth

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 Methods of Childbirth

Other natural techniques used to reduce pain:

Waterbirth: giving birth in a tub of warm water
Massage

Acupuncture: insertion of very fine needles into

specific locations in the body
Hypnosis: the induction of a psychological state of
altered attention and awareness
Music therapy: utilizes music to reduce stress and
manage pain

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 Methods of Childbirth

Cesarean Delivery: the baby is removed from the

mothers uterus through an incision made in the
abdomen
Often used if baby is in breech position or other
complications arise
Cesareans involve a higher infection rate, longer hospital
stays, and a longer recovery time
Rate of cesarean births has increased dramatically in
recent years
Better identification of complications
Increase in overweight and obese mothers
Extra caution by doctors to avoid lawsuits

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 Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Birth process is stressful for baby

Anoxia: a condition in which the fetus has an insufficient
supply of oxygen
Baby secretes adrenaline and noradrenalin, hormones that
are secreted in stressful circumstances
Measuring neonatal health and responsiveness:
Apgar Scale: assessed at 1 minute and 5 minutes after
birth
evaluates heart rate, body color, muscle tone, respiratory effort,
and reflex irritability
10 is highest, 3 or below indicates an emergency

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Transition from Fetus to Newborn

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 Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Measuring neonatal health and responsiveness:

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
(NBAS):
Typically performed within 2436 hours after birth
Assesses newborns neurological development, reflexes, and
reactions to people and objects
Low scores can indicate brain damage or other difficulties
Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral
Scale (NNNS):
Provides a more comprehensive analysis of newborns behavior,
neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities
Assesses the at-risk infant

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 Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants

Preterm and Small-for-Date Infants:

Low birth weight infants weigh less than 5 lbs. at birth
Preterm infants are those born three weeks or more before full
term
Small-for-date infants are those whose birth weight is below
normal when the length of the pregnancy is considered
Rate of preterm births has increased
Number of births to mothers 35 years and older
Rates of multiple births
Management of maternal and fetal conditions
Substance abuse
Stress

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 Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants

Causes of low birth weight:

Poor health and nutrition
Cigarette smoking

Adolescent births

Use of drugs

Multiple births/reproductive technology

Improved technology and prenatal care

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 Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants

Possible consequences:
Language development delays
Lower IQ scores
Brain injury
Lung or liver diseases
More behavioral problems
Learning disabilities
ADHD
Breathing problems (asthma)
Approximately 50% are enrolled in special education
programs

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 Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants

Some effects can be improved with:

Early speech therapy
Intensive enrichment programs

Kangaroo care, massage therapy, and breast feeding

Kangaroo Care: treatment for preterm infants that involves
skin to skin contact
Massage: research conducted by Tiffany Field

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Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants

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 The Postpartum Period

Postpartum period lasts about six weeks or until the

mothers body has completed its adjustment and has
returned to a nearly pre-pregnant state
Physical Adjustments:
Fatigue
Hormone changes
Return to menstruation
Involution: process by which the uterus returns to its pre-
pregnant size 56 weeks after birth
Weight loss/return to exercise

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 The Postpartum Period

Emotional and Psychological Adjustments:

Emotionalfluctuations are common
Baby Blues experienced by 70% of new mothers in the
U.S.
Typically resolves in 12 weeks, without treatment
Postpartum Depression
Excessive sadness, anxiety, and despair that lasts for two weeks or
longer
Experienced by 10% of new mothers
Hormonal changes after birth may play a role
May affect motherchild interactions

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 Percentage of U.S. Women Who
Experience Postpartum Blues
Postpartum blues: and Postpartum Depression
symptoms appear 2 to 3
days after delivery and
subside within 1 to 2 weeks

70%

20% 10%

No symptoms
Postpartum depression: symptoms
linger for weeks or months and
interfere with daily functioning

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 The Postpartum Period

A Fathers Adjustment:
Many fathers feel that the baby gets all of the
mothers attention
Parents should set aside time to be together

Fathers reaction is improved if he has taken

childbirth classes and is an active participant in the
babys care

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 Bonding

Bonding: the formation of a connection, especially a

physical bond, between parents and the newborn in
the period shortly after birth
Isolationof premature babies and use of drugs in birth
process may harm bonding process
Bonding may be a critical component in the childs

development
However, close contact in the first few days may not be necessary
Most hospitals offer a rooming-in arrangement while
mother and child are in the hospital

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