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1 -Ir Salmah Zakaria (2008) , Water Resources and Global Warming: Focus, Water Supply , Meeting of Water Supply
Senior Officer, Equatorial Hotel, KL.
In Malaysia at year 20072, about 14,278 MLD water treated from 462
numbers of water treatment plants. The water demand is 12,330 MLD,
most serves for urban area compared to rural .The water being used
by 27 Million people.
2 -Ir Noor Azahari Zainal (2008) , Operational Aspects of WaterDemand Management- For Domestic &
Industrial Use, Meeting of Water Supply Senior Officer, Equatorial Hotel, KL.
CO2 H S
Air 2
Disinfectant
As an engineer, you
are asked to select the
appropriate water
treatment plant.
What will be your
selection? Why?
List the primary
treatment.
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 19
What are the common raw water sources
used in Malaysia?
Answer : River water and lake
As an engineer, you are asked to select the
appropriate water treatment plant.
What will be your selection?
Intake
Disinfection
Aerator & Re-adjustment
Chemical Dosage Hydrated Lime
Hydrated Lime-Softening Chlorine
Alum- Coagulation Flouride
Pump station
Balancing Tank
Consumer Consumer
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 21
loss,
entrain suspended
matter, trap
INTAKE
Raw water intakes withdraw water fish, and other
from a river, lake, or reservoir aquatic animals.
( surface water source) over a Velocity below 8 cm/s
predetermined range of pool levels. allows
aquatic animal to
Intake site selections depend on : escape, and
Water quality minimize the suspended
Water depth matter
Stream or current velocities Intake-port location-
Access Water
Power availability quality in each
Proximity to water treatment plant stratum may vary.
Environmental impact To achieve, multiple
Hazard to navigate intake ports
set at various levels
Raw water intake structures control are generally
withdrawal of raw water from a provided
surface water source. Intake Top intake less than
structure contains gates, screens, 2 m below
control valves, pumps, chemical normal level.
feeders, flow meters, offices and Bottom intake least 1
machine shop. m above
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 22
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 23
INTAKE
Types of intake structures; floating intake ( Figure 3.3),
submerged intake, pier intake, tower intake ( Figure 3.4),
exposed or tower intake and shore intake
Figure 3.3 Floating intake
Solution:
Non-Carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH
If Alkalinity Total hardness, then NCH = 0
Called permanent hardness because it is not removed when
the water is heated. It is much more expensive to remove
non-carbonate hardness than carbonate hardness.
Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with other ions, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-
Solution
Ion Conc. M.W. n
Eq. Wt. Conc. Conc.
mg/L mg/mmo mg/meq meq/L mg/L
(ion conc. /
l EW)
as
CaCO3
Ca2+ 40.0 40.1 2 20.05 1.995 99.8*
Mg2+ 10.0 24.3 2 12.15 0.823 41.2
Na+ 11.8 23.0 1 23.0 0.510 25.7
K+ 7.0 39.1 1 39.1 0.179 8.95
HCO3- 110.0 61.0 1 61.0 1.800 90.2
SO42- 67.2 96.1 2 48.05 1.400 69.9
Cl- 11.0 35.5 1 35.5 0.031 15.5
*Sample Calculation: Concentration of Ca2+ in mg/L as CaCO3 =
(Concentration in meq/L) *
(Equivalent Weight of CaCO3) = (1.995 meq/L) X (50 mg/meq) = 99.8
mg/L as CaCO3
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 31
SOFTENING
Check Solution
(Cation)s = (Anion)s
175.6 = 175.6
Note: to within 10% mg/L as CaCO3
Total Hardness
= of multivalent cations
= (Ca2+) + (Mg2+)
= 99.8 + 41.2
= 141 mg/L as CaCO3
Non-carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH = 141 - 90.1 =50.9 mg/L as CaCO3
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 32
SOFTENING
Softening can be accomplished by the lime soda process, ion
exchange, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. Lime soda softening is
discussed in this chapter.
Lime-Soda Softening
-it is possible to calculate the chemical doses necessary to
remove hardness
-hardness precipitation is based on the Tofollowing two solubility
supply hydroxyl ions, the
reaction:
To supply carbonate ions, the economic way is to buy LIME
chemical used is SODA ( CaO) , then mix with water to
( Na2CO3) produce Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime)
From the water analysis presented below, determine the amount of lime
and soda (mg/L as CaCO3) to soften the water to 120 mg/L as CaCO3
Water composition (mg/L as CaCO3)
.
Ca2+ = 149.2 CO2 = 29.3 HCO3-= 185.0
Solution
2) From the bar chart , we
1) Plot the bar chart as shown below note following
149.2 + 65.8
TH = 215 mg/L as CaCO3
CH = 185 mg/L as CaCO3
if TH > alk CH =
Alk
NCH = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
NCH = TH -CH
185 + 29.8
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 41
SOFTENING
3) Follow the logic of Figure in Slide 38, calculate the lime
dose as follows
Step Dose (mg/L as CaCO3)
Lime = CO2 29.3
- 185.0
Lime = HCO3
Lime = Mg2+ - 40 = 65.8 - 40 25.8
TOTAL = 265.9
NCH left = final desired hardness 40 NCH removed = NCH NCH left
Therefore,
NCH left = 120 40 = 80 mg/L
NCH removed = NCHi-NCHleft=30 80 = -50 ( negative is
indicating there is no need to remove NCH, no SODA
required )
HOW TO REMOVE
COLLOIDS ????
They repel
other colloidal particles
before they
collide with one
another. The
colloids are
continually
involved in Brownian
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 45
COAGULATION and FLOCCULATION
How to destabilize the particles???
Neutralize the charge by addition of an ion opposite to it ( Destabilization)
-by addition of divalent or trivalent ion it will reduce colloid charge even faster.
The lower the charge, the lower repelling forces around the colloid.
Al 3+ /
Fe3+
Al 3+ /
Fe3+ Al(OH)3 (s) @ Fe(OH)3 (s)
High molecular
weight polymers,
called coagulant aids,
may be added during
this step to help
bridge, bind, and
strengthen the floc,
add weight, and
increase settling rate.
Once the floc has
reached it optimum
size and strength, the
water is ready for the
sedimentation
process.
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 48
COAGULATION and FLOCCULATION
COAGULANT:
is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water to
destabilize particles and accomplish coagulation
PROPERTIES OF COAGULANT
o Trivalent cations
Solution
Chemical reaction
Al2(SO4)314H2O + 6HCO3- 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 3SO42- + 14H2O
Solution:
1 mole alum will produce 2 mole alum sludge
MW alum = 594 g/mole; MW alum sludge = 78 g/mole, in this case 2 moles alum
sludge will be
produced, therefore 78x2 = 156 g/mole
A typical test is conducted by first dosing each jar with the same alum dose and
varying the pH in each
jar. The result s are shown in below. Find the optimal pH, coagulant dose, and the
theoretical amount of
alkalinity that would be consumed at the optimal dose.
1)Conduct the second jar test with pH 6.0 for six beakers ( Why 6? Refer to the jar
which has the
lower turbidity in jar test 1). The results are shown below
Coagulation happens in
two mechanisms;
Adsorption/destabilizat
ion of the soluble
hydrolysis species on
the colloid and
destabilization
Sweep coagulation
where the colloid is
trapped in the
hydroxide precipitate
Adsorption/destabilization: t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 1 s < t < 10 s
Velocity gradient, G
G , can be thought as the amount of shear taking place;
Power = G2 V
where,
G = velocity gradient, s -1
V = volume in m3
= dynamic viscosity of water, Pa.s
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 63
Example
A rapid mixer is used for the dispersion of the coagulant to
COAGULATION
achieve the
and FLOCCULATION
adsorption/destabilization reaction. If the water ( temperature 17 0
C) flows at
300 MLD, determine the volume of coagulation tank. Calculate
the power.
Given ; velocity gradient, G = 2000 s-1
Solution
For the adsorption/destabilization reaction, t should be fixed as
0.5 s.
Volume = Q t
= ( 300 x 106 L) ( 0.5 s x d x hr x min )
d 24 hr 60 min 60 s
= 1740 L x m3
1000L
= 1.74 m3
Refer to water properties, dynamic viscosity of water @17 0 C
=1.081 x 10-3 Pa.s
Refer Table
Power = G2 V
= (2000) 2 (1.74) (1.081 x 10-3)
= 7524 Watt
Note: recalculate
Environmental the
Engineering Sem power by assuming the temperature
2 2011/2012 64 of
COAGULATION and FLOCCULATION
Effectiveness of Flocculation
The crux of efficient flocculation is the efficiency of MIXING to bring
the particles into contact with one another so that they will collide,
stick together and grow to a size that will readily settle. The
mixing to to flocculate the coagulated water.
Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and
2)mixing time.
Velocity gradient,high
For flocculation, G enough to cause particles contact and keep the
floc from settling but low enough to prevent the floc from tearing
apart.
Mixing Time
2) baffled chamber
1) In designing a flocculation
tank, which one of the
following parameters take
more priority: horizontal /flow
through velocity or detention
time?
Ty Description Example
pe Water treatment Wastewater
s treatment
Solution
1.75 GPM/ ft2 = 1.18 mm/s
V = 2.1 -1.18 mm/s
= 0.92 mm/s
Solution
Volume , V = Qt
= (3800 m3/d) ( 3/24)
= 475 m3
Volume, V = AD
D =V/A
= 475 m3/183.3 m2
= 2.59 m
Diameter = 15.3 m
Weir loading rate = Q/ Lw
= 3800 m3/d
20 m
= 190 m3/day.m ( OK!)
Solution
vv0s == 17
0.1mmm/s
3
/d. m2 = ? mm/s, ( do the conversion so, V0= 0.2 mm/s
Note that
vs < v 0 , P = 100 vs / vo = 100 ( 0.1)/(0.2) = 50%
Solution:
Tank 1 Tank 2
1)Find the surface area.
Q = V/t
V=Qt
V = (1900.8 m3)(120 min)( d ) = 158 m3
d 1440 min
Depth= 158 m3 =1.684 m,= 1.7 m
95 m2
The final design would then be two tanks, each having the following
dimensions:
5 m wide x 19 m long x 1.7 m deep plus sludge storage depth.