OriginoftheUniverse

UnderstandingEarthsuniqueness

 Planetaryevolution

Wheredoeswatercomefrom?
Whydowehaveoceans?
Whydowehavelifeasweknowit?
Elementalcomposition
Presentdayconfigurationrelativetoorigins
Hydrologicalcycle
Dissolvedgases/OceanandAtmosphere

 Howdidtheearthbecome
habitable?

HowdidEarthevolve?
Whatmakesitdifferentfromotherplanets?

 Originoftheuniverse
Importanceoftimescales
Forcesatworkinthepastsomechangesas
planetevolved
Forcesatworktoday
Howcanwemeasureageoftheearth

 HowoldisEarth?
Biblicalscholarsof19thcentury(BishopUssher)6000
years(startedat4004BC)
ClassicalGreeksinfinitehistoryendlesslyrepeats
itself
Mayansbelievedearthrecycledona3000yeartime
scale
HanChinesethoughtearthwasrecreatedevery
23,639,040years
Theagewenowexceptmaychangebutisconsistent
withcurrenttheory

 Morerecentefforts
LordKelvin80millionyearsoldbasedon
coolingofmoltenEarth
Darwinreallyoldbasedontimefornatural
selection(biologicalargument)
Huttonreallyoldbasedonuniformitarianism
(processesinthepasttakingplaceatrates
comparabletotoday)(geologicalargument)

 Earthsage
Earthisabout4.5(or4.6)BYold
First700MYEarthwasaspinningcloudofgas,
dustandplanetoids
Thesecondensedandsettledtosolidifyintoa
seriesofplanets
Sincethattime,geologicalhistoryandevolution
commenced.

 Formerlyoldestlife

Oldestlife?

 TheBigBangTheory
Currentlythedominanttheory
FirstiterationproposedbyGeorgesLematrein1927.
Heobservedtheredshiftindistantnebulasandinvoked
relativity.
Hubblefoundexperimentalevidence(1929)galaxies
aremovingawayfromuswithspeedsproportionalto
theirdistance.
Theorysuggestedbecauseitexplainstheexpansion&
predictstheexistenceofcosmicradiation(leftover
photons)&nucleosynthesis
1964cosmicradiationdiscovered(ArnoPenzias&
RobertWilsonwhowontheNobelPrize)

 BigBangwhatisit?
Collapsingcloudofinterstellardust
Clouddenseandcoldsocollapsesunderitsownself
gravity(coldgashaslessinternalpressuretocounteract
gravity)
Oncecollapsed,itimmediatelywarmsupbecauseof
releaseofgravitationalenergyduringcollapse
Allmassandenergyconcentratedatageometricpoint

 BigBang
~14or15BYago
Beginningofspaceandtime
Expansion/coolingofuniversebegan
Protonsandneutronsform
Coolinginitiatedtheformationofatomsfirst
mostlyH(themostabundantformofmatterinthe
universe)andHe(twolightestelements)

 Theuniverse
H2andHegasarestillthedominantelementsintheuniverse
Stillabout99%ofallmaterial
Giantgasanddustcloudsform
Cloudsbegintobreakintomegaclouds
Megacloudsorganizedintospiralandellipticalshapesdueto
rotationalforces
Galaxiesornebulaearethegasesanddustinthedisk
Someofthegasinthesegalaxiesbrokeupintosmaller
clusterstoformstars
Gravitationalcollapseofstarsproducesheat
Initiatesfusionreactionsthatmakeotherelements

 The Eagle Nebula from the
Hubble telescope

Interstellarclouds
 Formationofgalaxyandstars
Galaxyrotatingaggregationofstars,dust,gasand
debrisheldtogetherbygravity
Starsaremassivespheresofincandescentgases
100sofbillionsofgalaxiesintheuniverseand100s
ofbillionsofstarsinthegalaxies
Sunisastar
Sunplusitsfamilyofplanetsisoursolarsystem
Oursolarsystemformedabout5BYago

 Ourgalaxyisoutinaspiralarm
Oursolarsystemorbitsthegalaxyscore
(230millionyearorbitat280km/s)

 FormationoftheSun
Cloudsininterstellarspacearemany1000sof
timesthemassofthesun
Cloudscontract,producingsmallerfragments
Form1ormorestardependinghowfastthe
cloudfragmentisrotating(fasteryieldsmore
stars)

ThediskaroundthestarBetaPictorisasseenfrom
theHubbleSpaceTelescope)realandfalsecolor

 Stars
Starsforminnebulae,largediffusecloudsofdustand
gas.
Condensationtheoryspinningnebulastartstoshrink
andheatunderitsowngravity
Protostarcondensedgases
Attemperatureof~10milliondegreesC,nuclearfusion
begins(HsfusetoformHe)whichreleasesenergyand
stopsshrinkage
Starisstableoncefusionreactionsbegin(formatoms
asheavyasCandO)

 Oursun
in5by

Oursun
eventually

Starclassificationmostfallalongmainsequencebandandarenormal
EffectiveradiatingtemperaturecalculatedusingWeinslaw
BrightestbluestandmostmassiveareOandB,earlytypestars(left)
Dimmest,reddestandleastmassiveareKandM,latetypestars

OursunisaG2star
 Elementsynthesis
Seriesoffusionreactionsproducing
elementsuptoFe
Fusionreactionsconvertasmallamountof
masstoheat
Heatsupstar
Increasesstarsdensity
Combinetoincreasecoretemperature

 Beginningoftheend
Starstartsconsumingheavieratomsincreasing
energyoutputandswellingtoaredgiant
Nuclearfuelincoreisspent
Incineratesplanetandthrowsoffmatter
includingheavyelements
MoremassivestarsgethotterandconsumeHat
higherratesandmakeheavieratoms(e.g.,Fe)


 Theend
Hisconsumed
Corecollapsesonitself
Internaltemperaturessoresocannolongercontract
Starimplodes
Cataclysmicexpansioncalledasupernova(30sec)
Massisacceleratedoutward
Forcesholdingapartatomicnucleiareovercome
Producesfreeneutrons
Heavieratomsformedbyneutroncapture

 Heavyelements
Reactionsproducestableandradioactive
elements
Radioactiveelementsimportantfor
planetaryevolution
Internalheatsourcedrivingplatetectonics
Elementalcomposition


 AbundanceofFe
Feisabundantincoresofstarsthatexplode
Nuclearphysicsdictatesthatthiselementisthemost
stableelementthatcanformviafusionreactions
Formationofotherelementsrequiresfissionreactionsor
reactionswithfreeneutrons
Feaccumulatesinthecorebeforeitexplodes
Otherlowermasselementsoccurinsupernovae
debrissincecoreisstillburningotherelements
GeneraldecreaseinelementalabundanceuptoFe
andaccumulationofFe

 OurSolarSystem
Oursolarnebulawasstruckbyasupernova
Causedourcondensingnebulatospin
Introducedheavyatomstoseedtheformationofplanets
5BYago,thesolarnebulawas75%H,23%Heand2%
othermaterial
Centerbecameprotosun
Outermaterialbecameplanetssmallerbodiesthat
orbitastarbutdonotshinebytheirownlight

 ChemicalcompositionofSun
Oursundidnotformearlyafterthebigbang
Containselementsthatcouldonlyformduring
deathofaredgiant(elementsbeyondFe)
Gassesanddustfromexplosionofaredgiant
condensedtoformoursun
Samematerialthatformedthesunalsoformedthe
planets
EarthandterrestrialplanetsarealsopredominantlyFe,
Mg,Si,andO

 Oursolarsystem
Mostofthematerialinthecloudthatformedoursun
endedupinthesun
Chemicalelementsinsunsimilartoelementsinuniverse
Somematerialendedupinthenebulardiskaround
thesun
Formedplanets,moon,asteroids,comets
Thismaterialwasdifferentinchemicalcomposition
Elementsthatwerecontainedindustandiceformedplanets
Gassesnotretainedbysunwerelargelylost
Exceptionissomeofthelarge,gassyouterplanets


 Planets
Grewbyaccretionbigclumpsusegravitationalpulltoaccretecondensing
matter
Nearsun,firstmaterialstosolidifyhadhigherboilingpoints(metalsand
rockyminerals)MercuryismostlyFe,Ni.Innerrockyplanets.
NextMg,Si,H2OandO2condensed(plussomeFeandNi).Middleplanets
(e.g.,Earth).
CH4andNH3infrigidouterzones.Outergassyplanets(Jupiter,Saturn,
UranusandNeptune).

 Stabilizationofsolarsystem
Protosunbecamestar(sun)andnuclearfusionbegan
Solarwind(radiation)atthestartofthosereactions
clearedexcessparticlesandendedrapidaccretionof
innerplanets.

 Oursolarsystem
Collapseofnebularcloudthathadbeenhitbyaredgianttoformour
sun
Nuclearreactionscommenced
Chemicalfractionationofplanetscirclingnewsun
Hotinnerregionofthering
Lossofvolativeelements
Innerplanetsretainedmetalsandoxidesthatcancondenseathightemperatures
Coldouterregionofthering
Accumulationoficesandgasses
Gassesaccumulatedinlargeouterplanetsbecausetheircoresaccretedfairly
earlyandtheirgravitationalattractionduetotheirmasseswassufficientto
retaingases.


 Terrestrialplanets
Mercury,Venus,EarthandMars
Nuclearphysicssetsrelativeabundanceofelementsand
inorganicchemistrycontrolsthechemicalformsofthese
elements
Elementsthatformgasseslargelylostfromplanetsas
comparedtochondrites
Elementsformingoxideslargelyretained
Somelossduetovolatilization
Chondritesfoundinmeteorsandthoughttorepresentoriginal
materialthatformedtheplanets
Oxygenandsulfurareexceptionshavegaseousandsolid
forms


 EarlyEarth
Homogeneousthroughoutduringinitialaccretionofcoldparticles
Surfaceheatedbyimpacts(asteroids,cometsanddebris)first500my
Heat,gravitationalcompression,radioactivedecaycausedpartialmelting.
Densitystratification.
Gravitypulledheavy
elementstointerior.
Frictionduringthis
producedmoreheat.
Lighterminerals(Si,
Mg,AlandObonded
compounds)migratedto
surfaceformingEarths
crust.

 Timeline(sincebigbang)
1035secABB(TheBigBang)
Theuniverseisaninfinitelydense,hotfireball.
106secABB(1millionthofasecond)
Universeforms:Expansionslowsdown;universecoolsand
becomeslessdense
Themostbasicforcesinnaturebecomedistinct:firstgravity,
thenthestrongforce,whichholdsnucleiofatomstogether,
followedbytheweakandelectromagneticforces.Bythefirst
second,theuniverseismadeupoffundamentalparticlesand
energy:quarks,electrons,photons,neutrinosandlessfamiliar
types.Theseparticlessmashtogethertoformprotonsand
neutrons.

 3secABB
Formationofbasicelements
Protonsandneutronscometogethertoformthenucleiof
simpleelements:hydrogen(1proton),helium(2protons)and
lithium(3protons)(1,2and3inperiodictable).Itwilltake
another300,000yearsforelectronstobecapturedintoorbits
aroundthesenucleitoformstableatoms.
10,000yrABB
RadiationEra
Thefirstmajorerainthehistoryoftheuniverseisonein
whichmostoftheenergyisintheformofradiation
differentwavelengthsoflight,Xrays,radiowavesand
ultravioletrays.Thisenergyistheremnantoftheprimordial
fireball,andastheuniverseexpands,thewavesofradiation
arestretchedanddiluteduntiltoday,theymakeupthefaint
glowofmicrowaveswhichbathetheentireuniverse.

 300,000yrABB
Matterdominates
Theenergyinmatterandtheenergyinradiationareequal.As
universeexpands,wavesoflightarestretchedtolowerand
lowerenergy,whilethemattertravelsonwardlargely
unaffected.Neutralatomsareformedaselectronslinkup
withhydrogenandheliumnuclei.Microwavebackground
radiationgivesusadirectpictureofhowmatterwas
distributedatthisearlytime.
300MYABB
Birthofstarsandgalaxies.
Gravityamplifiesslightirregularitiesinthedensityofthe
primordialgas.Evenastheuniversecontinuestoexpand
rapidly,pocketsofgasbecomemoreandmoredense.Stars
ignitewithinthesepockets,andgroupsofstarsbecomethe
earliestgalaxies.(Stillperhaps12to15billionyearsbefore
thepresent).

 5BYagoBirthoftheSun
ThesunformswithinacloudofgasinaspiralarmoftheMilkyWayGalaxy.
Avastdiskofgasanddebristhatswirlsaroundthisnewstargivesbirthto
planets,moons,andasteroids.Earthisthethirdplanetout.
Theimageontheleft,fromtheHubbleSpaceTelescope,showsa
newbornstarintheOrionNebulasurroundedbyadiskofdustandgas
thatmayonedaycollapseintoplanets,moonsandasteroids.
3.8BYagoEarliestLife
TheEarthhascooledandanatmospheredevelops.Microscopicliving
cells,neitherplantsnoranimals,begintoevolveandflourishinearth's
manyvolcanicenvironments.
700MYagoPrimitiveAnimalsappear
Thesearemostlyflatworms,jellyfishandalgae.By570millionyears
beforethepresent,largenumbersofcreatureswithhardshellssuddenly
appear.
200MYagoMammalsappear
Thefirstmammalsevolvedfromaclassofreptilesthatevolved
mammaliantraits,suchasasegmentedjawandaseriesofbonesthat
makeuptheinnerear.

 65MYagoDinosaursbecomeextinct
AnasteroidorcometslamsintothenorthernpartoftheYucatanPeninsula
inMexico.Thisworldwidecataclysmbringstoanendthelongageofthe
dinosaurs,andallowsmammalstodiversifyandexpandtheirranges.
600,000yragoHomosapiensevolve
OurearliestancestorsevolveinAfricafromalineofcreaturesthat
descendedfromapes.
170,000yragoSupernova1987aexplodes
AstarexplodesinadwarfgalaxyknownastheLargeMagellanic
CloudthatliesjustbeyondtheMilkyWay.Thestar,knowninmodern
timesasSanduleak69202,isabluesupergiant25timesmoremassive
thanourSun.Suchexplosionsdistributeallthecommonelementssuch
asOxygen,Carbon,Nitrogen,CalciumandIronintointerstellarspace
wheretheyenrichcloudsofHydrogenandHeliumthatareaboutto
formnewstars.Theyalsocreatetheheavierelements(suchasgold,
silver,lead,anduranium)anddistributetheseaswell.Theirremnants
generatethecosmicrayswhichleadtomutationandevolutioninliving
cells.Thesesupernovae,then,arekeytotheevolutionoftheUniverse
andtolifeitself.

 1054CrabSupernovaappears
AnewstarintheconstellationTaurusoutshinesVenus.Chinese,
Japanese,andNativeAmericanobserversrecordtheappearanceofa
supernova.Itisnot,however,recordedinEurope,mostlikelyasa
consequenceoflackofstudyofnatureduringtheDarkAges.The
remnantsofthisexplosionarevisibletodayastheCrabNebula.Within
thenebula,astronomershavefoundapulsar,theultradenseremainsofa
starthatblewup.
1609Galileobuildsfirsttelescope
Fiveyearsaftertheappearanceofthegreatsupernovaof1604,Galileo
buildshisfirsttelescope.HeseesthemoonsofJupiter,Saturn'srings,the
phasesofVenus,andthestarsintheMilkyWay.
1665Newtondescribesgravity
Attheageof23,youngIsaacNewtonrealizesthatgravitational
forceaccountsforfallingbodiesonearthaswellasthemotionof
themoonandtheplanetsinorbit.Thisisarevolutionarystepinthe
historyofthought,asitextendstheinfluenceofearthlybehaviorto
therealmoftheheavens.Onesetoflaws,discoveredandtestedon
ourplanet,willbeseentogoverntheentireuniverse.

 1905EinsteinsTheoryofRelativity
Relativityrecognizesthespeedoflightasthe
absolutespeedlimitintheuniverseand,assuch, unitesthe
previouslyseparateconceptsofspace andtimeintoa
unifiedspacetime.Elevenyears later,hisGeneralTheoryof
Relativityreplaces Newton'smodelofgravitywithone
inwhichthe gravitationalforceisinterpretedasthe
response ofbodiestodistortionsinspacetimewhich
matter itselfcreates.Predictionsofblackholesand
an expandingUniverseareimmediate consequencesof
thisrevolutionarytheorywhich remainsunchallengedtoday
asourdescriptionof thecosmos.

 1929Hubblediscoversuniverseisexpanding
EdwinHubblediscoversthattheuniverseisexpanding.TheastronomerEdwin
Hubbleusesthenew100inchtelescopeonMt.WilsoninSouthernCaliforniato
discoverthatthefartherawayagalaxyis,themoreitslightisshiftedtothered.
Andtheredderagalaxy'slight,thefasteritismovingawayfromus.Bydescribing
this"Dopplershift,"Hubbleprovesthattheuniverseisnotstatic,butisexpanding
inalldirections.Healsodiscoversthatgalaxiesaremuchfurtherawaythan
anyonehadthought.

1960Quasarsdiscovered
AllanSandageandThomasMatthewsfindsourcesofintenseradioenergy,
callingthemQuasiStellarRadioSources.Fouryearslater,MaartenSchmidt
woulddiscoverthatthesesourceslieattheedgeofthevisibleuniverse.In
recentyears,astronomershaverealizedthattheyaregiganticblackholesatthe
centersofyounggalaxiesintowhichmatterisheatedtohightemperaturesand
glowsbrightlyasitrushesin.
1964Microwaveradiationdiscovered
ScientistsattheBellTelephoneLaboratoriesdiscoveredmicrowaveradiation
thatbathestheearthfromalldirectionsinspace.Thisradiationistheafterglow
oftheBigBang.

 1967DiscoveryofPulsars
Agraduatestudent,JocelynBell,andherprofessor,Anthony
Hewish,discoverintensepulsatingsourcesofradioenergy,
knownaspulsars.Pulsarswerethefirstknownexamplesof
neutronstars,extremelydenseobjectsthatforminthewake
ofsomesupernovae.Thecrabpulsar,istheremnantofthe
brightsupernovarecordedbyNativeAmericansandcultures
aroundtheworldintheyear1054A.D.
1987Lightfromsupernova1987reachesEarth
Thelightfromthissupernovareachesearth,170,000years
afterisparentstarexploded.Undergroundsensorsinthe
UnitedStatesandJapanfirstdetectawaveofsubatomic
particlesknownasneutrinosfromtheexplosion.Astronomers
rushtotelescopesinthesouthernhemispheretostudythe
progressoftheexplosionandperfectmodelsdescribingthe
violentdeathsoflargestars.

 1990Hubblelaunched
Thetwelvetontelescope,equippedwitha94inchmirror,is
sentintoorbitbyastronautsaboardthespaceshuttleDiscovery.
Withintwomonths,aflawinitsmirrorisdiscovered,placingin
jeopardythelargestinvestmenteverinastronomy.
1990BigBangconfirmed
AstronomersusethenewCosmicBackgroundExplorersatellite
(COBE)totakeadetailedspectrumofthemicrowave
backgroundradiation.Thesestudiesshowedthattheradiationis
innearlyperfectagreementwiththeBigBangtheory.Two
yearslater,scientistsusedthesameinstrumenttodiscover
minutevariationsinthebackgroundradiation:theearliest
knownevidenceofstructureintheuniverse.
1993Hubbleopticsrepaired
Hubble'sgreatestlegacysofar:detailedimagesofgalaxiesnear
thelimitsofthevisibleuniverse.

 100Trillion Future
Astronomersassumethattheuniversewillgraduallywitheraway,
provideditkeepsonexpandinganddoesnotrecollapseunderthe
pullofitsowngravity.DuringtheStelliferousEra,from10,000
yearsto100trillionyearsaftertheBigBang,mostoftheenergy
generatedbytheuniverseisintheformofstarsburninghydrogen
andotherelementsintheircores.
1037yrs
Mostofthemassthatwecancurrentlyseeintheuniverseislocked
upindegeneratestars,thosethathaveblownupandcollapsedinto
blackholesandneutronstars,orhavewitheredintowhitedwarfs.
Energyinthiseraisgeneratedthroughprotondecayandparticle
annihilation.

 1038to10100TheBlackHoleEra
Aftertheepochofprotondecay,theonlystellarlikeobjects
remainingareblackholesofwidelydisparatemasses,which
areactivelyevaporatingduringthisera.
10100DarkEraBegins
Atthislatetime,protonshavedecayedandblackholeshave
evaporated.Onlythewasteproductsfromtheseprocesses
remain:mostlyphotonsofcolossalwavelength,neutrinos,
electrons,andpositrons.Forallintentsandpurposes,the
universeasweknowithasdissipated.

From:PBSOnline(http://www.pbs.org/deepspace/timeline/)

 AgingtheEarth&SolarSystem
Oldestrocksonearthabout4.1bybp(zircons)
Materialinsolarsystemappearsolder(~4.55bybp)
Datingmeteorites,chunksofrockandmetal,formedaboutthe
sametimeasthesunandplanetsandfromthesamecloud.
Carbonaceouschondritesareaclassofmeteoritesbelievedtobethemost
primitiveinthesolarsystem(silicateminerals,waterandcarbon)
DatingmoonrocksandoldestrocksfoundonEarth(about3.8BY
old)
Rateofexpansion(2002,astronomershadveryaccurate
measurementsandcalculatedbackwardstoanageof1314BY
old).

 Howdoweagethings?
Isotopicdecay
Radioisotopesareunstableanddecaytoform
daughterproductswhichformnexttoparent
nuclide.
Knowtheratioofdaughtertoparentinundisturbed
sampleandtherateofconversion(e.g.,decayrate
orhalflife)allowscomputationofage
Thishasbeendonewithseveralisotopepairsto
arriveatageofsolarsystem

 Isotopes
Theordinaryisotopeofhydrogen,H,isknownasProtium,theother
twoisotopesareDeuterium(aprotonandaneutron;stable)and
Tritium(aprotronandtwoneutrons;unstable).Hydrogenistheonly
elementwhoseisotopeshavebeengivendifferentnames.
Radioactivedecayspontaneousdisintegrationofunstablenuclei
Forlowatomicnumberelementsstableisabout1:1neutrons:protons
inthenuclei.Forhigheratomicnumberelements,theratioisabout
1.6:1.
Heavynuclides(atomicnumber>82)havenostableconfiguration.
Differenttypesofdecay
FYI:Fusionofhydrogenintoheliumprovidestheenergyofthe
hydrogenbomb

 Someisotopes
Parentisotope DaughterIsotope HalfLife
238U 206Pb 4.47x109years
235U 207Pb 7.04x108yrs
232Th 208Pb 1.40x1010yrs
87 Rb 87 Sr 4.88x1010yrs
40K 40Ar 1.25x109yrs
39 Ar 39 K 269yrs
14 C 14 N 5,730yrs
147Sm 147Nd 1.06x1011yrs
*daughters are smaller and contain fewer protons, neutrons & electrons

 Datechondriticmeteorites

Pbisochronapproach
pairsofisotopesforrelativity

Timeclockssetatpointof
crystalization

Earthformedovertimeperiod
assolarmaterialaccumulates
inplanetasdust,rockand
planetessimals;thistook10
100my(basedoncalculations)

 Dopplershifting
Wavelengthsemittedbyobjectsmovingawayare
shiftedtolowerfrequency(towardsreds)
Wavelengthsemittedbyobjectsmovingtowardsus
areshiftedtohigherfrequency.
Exampleofsoundpitchoffireengineishigheras
truckmovestowardsyouandlowerasitmoves
away)
Forgalaxiesoutsideourgroup,theredshiftis
knownashubbleexpansion(afterEdwinHubble
whodiscoveredthisphenomenonin1929).

 Anotherwaytolookattime
07Norecord(nobabypics)
812Firstrocksformedthatarepreservedtoday
12 Firstlivingcellappeared
2223Oxygenappeared
31Atmospherebecomesoxygenated
40Firstfossilsformed(earlierrecordsaredubious)
41Firstvertebrates
41.7Firstlandplants
43Firstreptiles
45 Firstfloweringplants
45.6Mammals,birds,insectsbecamedominant
25daysago Firsthumanancestors
0.5hoursagoCivilizationbegan
1minagoIndustrialrevolutionbegan

GeologicTimeAppendixII


 Theoriginoflife

Nexttime

 Emergingfield
Exobiology
Carbonaceouschondrites
Primordialsoup
Reducingenvironments
polymerization
Compositionofacell Compositionofacell
59%H 50%protein
24%O 15%nucleicacid
11%C 15%carbohydrates
4%N 10%lipids
2%Others(P,S,etc) 10%other