BFC21103 Hydraulics

Chapter 1. Flow in Open

Channel
Tan Lai Wai, Wan Afnizan & Zarina
Md Ali
laiwai@uthm.edu.my

Updated: September 2014

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, students should
be able to:
i. Define and explain on types and
states of flow
ii. Identify types of open channels
iii. Define open channel geometries

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Open channel flow is flow of a liquid in a conduit
with a free surface subjected to atmospheric
pressure.
y Free surface
T
Flo
u
w A y
x B
Datum
Figure. Sketch of open channel
geometry
Examples: flow of water in rivers, canals, partially full
sewers and drains and flow of water over land.

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 Tahan river
rapids

Stormwater Management and Road

Tunnel (SMART), Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Siberian
meandering river
Practical applications:
a. flow depth in rivers, canals and other conveyance
conduits,
b. changes in flow depth due to channel controls e.g.
weirs, spillways, and gates,
c. changes in river stage during floods,
d. surface runoff from rainfall over land,
e. optimal channel design, and others

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1.1 Flow Parameters and Geometric
Elements
a. Depth of flow y is the vertical measure of water
depth.
Normal depth d is measured normal to the channel
bottom.
d = y cos
For most applications, d y when 10%, e.g. cos 1
= 0.9998. Free surface

Sw = water surface
Flow y d slope
Q

So = bottom x
slope Datum
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b. Flow or discharge Q is the volume of fluid passing a
cross-section perpendicular to the direction of flow per
unit time.
Mean velocity V is the discharge divided by the cross-
sectional area Q
V
A

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c. Wetted perimeter P is the length of channel
perimeter that is wetted or covered by flowing water.

T = top width

A y A = cross sectional
area covered by
P
flowing water
B = bottom
width

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d. Hydraulic radius R is the ratio of the flow area A to
wetted perimeter P.
A
R
P

e. Hydraulic depth D is the average depth of irregular

cross section. flowarea A
D
topwidth T
T

A y
P
B
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 Table. Open channel
geometries Area Top width Wetted
Channel section A T perimeter
T P
y By B B + 2y
B
Rectangula
r
T

1 y zy2 2zy 2y 1 z2
z
Triangular
T
1 y By + B+ B 2y 1 z2
z
B zy2 2zy
Trapezoidal
T
D2
D
2 sin2 Dsin D
2
y 8

Circle
Activity 1.1
1
m
2
m 60

3
Find: m
(a) Top surface width T, flow area A, wetted perimeter
P, and hydraulic radius R.
(b) If Q = 2.4 m3/s, determine the state of flow.
(c) If longitudinal length L = 50 m, find the cost to
construct the channel. Given excavation cost = RM
3/m3 and lining cost =
RM 5/m2.
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(a) Top surface width T, wetted area A, wetted perimeter
P and hydraulic radius R.
1
z
0.5774
tan60

T B 2zy P B 2y 1 z2
T 3 2 0.5774 2 P 3 2 2 1 0.5774
2

T 5.309m P 7.619m

A
A By zy2 R
P
A 3 2 0.5774
2 2 8.309
R
7.619
A 8.309m2
R 1.091m
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(b) If Q = 2.4 m3/s, determine the state of flow.

Q 2.4
v 0.2888m/s
A 8.309

V
Fr
gD

VR
Re

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(c) If the length of the channel is L = 50 m, find the cost to
construct the channel. Given excavation cost = RM 3/m3
and lining cost = RM 5/m2.

Volume of Achannel L
3 3 0.5774 32 50
excavation

709.81m3

Unitcost RM3/ m3 709.81

Cost of excavation
RM2129
.42

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Area of Alining Pchannel L
lining

Alining 3 2 3 1 0.5774
2
50
Alining 496.41m3

Cost of Unit cost Alining RM5/ m2 496.41

lining RM2482
.05

Total RM2129
.42 RM2482
.05 RM4611.47
cost

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 Additional Question for
Assignment #1

1.5 m 1.5 m

1.2 2 1.2
m 3 m
0.3
m
Find T, A, P, R, and D

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Activity
1.2
1m A1

A2 A4
2m A3

2m

1m 2m 4m 3m
Find:
(a) Flow area A
(b) Wetted perimeter P
(c) Hydraulic radius R

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1.2 Types of Open Channel

Prismatic and non-prismatic channels

Prismatic channel is the channel which cross-
sectional shape, size and bottom slope are
constant. Most of the man-made (artificial)
channels are prismatic channels over long
stretches. Examples of man-made channels are
irrigation canal, flume, drainage ditches, roadside
gutters, drop, chute, culvert and tunnel.
All natural channels generally have varying cross-
sections and therefore are non-prismatic.
Examples of natural channels are tiny hillside
rivulets, through brooks, streams, rivers and tidal
estuaries.
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 Rigid and mobile boundary channels
Rigid channels are channels with boundaries that
is not deformable. Channel geometry and
roughness are constant over time. Typical
examples are lined canals, sewers and non-
erodible unlined canals.
Mobile boundary channels are channels with
boundaries that undergo deformation due to the
continuous process of erosion and deposition due
to the flow. Examples are unlined man-made
channels and natural rivers.

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Canals
is usually a long and mild-
sloped channel built in the
ground, which may be
unlined or lined with stoned
masonry, concrete, cement,
wood or bituminous
material. Terusan Wan Muhammad Saman,
Kedah

Griboyedov Canal, St.

Petersburg, Russia BFC21103 Hydraulics
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Flumes
is a channel of wood, metal, concrete, or masonry,
usually supported on or above the surface of the
ground to carry water across a depression.

This flume diverts water from

White River, Washington to Bull Run Hydroelectric Project
generate electricity diversion flume

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Open-channel flume in
laboratory

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Chute
is a channel having steep slopes.

Natural chute (falls) on the left and man-made logging

chute on the right on the Coulonge River, Quebec,
Canada

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Drop
is similar to a chute, but the change in elevation
is within a short distance.

The spillway of Leasburg Diversion Dam is a

vertical hard basin drop structure designed
to dissipate energy

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Stormwater sewer
is a drain or drain system
designed to drain excess
rain from paved streets,
parkinglots, sidewalks and
roofs.

Storm
sewer

Storm drain receiving urban runof

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1.3 Types and Classification of Open
Channel Flows
Open channel
flow

Steady flow Unsteady

flow

Uniform flow Non-uniform

flow

Rapidly-varied Gradually-varied
flow flow
Various types of open-
channel flow
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Open channel flow conditions can be characterised with
respect to space (uniform or non-uniform flows) and
time (steady or unsteady flows).

Space - how do the flow conditions change along

the reach of an open channel system.

a. Uniform flow - depth of flow is the same

at every section of the flow
dy/dx = 0
b. Non-uniform flow - depth of flow varies along
the flow dy/dx 0

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a. Uniform
flow y
y
Constant wa
ter
x depth
dy
Depth of flow is the same at every section along the 0
dx
channel,

b. Non-uniform
flow y1
Depth chang
y2 es
along the
channel
dy
Depth of flow varies at different sections along the 0
dx
channel,
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Time - how do the flow conditions change over
time at a specific section in an open channel
system.
c. Steady flow - depth of flow does not
change/ constant during the time
interval under consideration dy/dt
=0
d. Unsteady flow - depth of flow changes
with time dy/dt 0

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c. Steady
flow y1 y2 y1 = y2
Time = Time =
t1 t2
dy
Depth of flow is the same at every time 0
dt
interval,

d. Unsteady
flow t3
t1
y1 t2 y1 y2 y3

dy
Depth of flow changes from time to 0
dt
time,
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The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes
abruptly over a comparatively short distance.
Examples of rapidly varied flow (RVF) are hydraulic
jump, hydraulic drop, flow over weir and flow under a
sluice gate.
The flow is gradually varied if the depth changes
slowly over a comparatively long distance. Examples
of gradually varied flow (GVF) are flow over a mild
slope and the backing up of flow (backwater).

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 RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF

Hydraulic Flow
Sluic jump over weir
e
Hydraulic
drop
Contraction
below the
sluice

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1.4 State of
Flow
The state or behaviour of open-channel flow is
governed basically by the viscosity and gravity
effects relative to the inertial forces of the flow.

Efect of visco sity - depending on the effect of

viscosity relative to inertial forces, the
flow may be in laminar, turbulent, or
transitional state.
- Reynolds number represents the
effect of viscosity
VRrelative to inertia,
Re

where V is the velocity, R is the hydraulic
radius of a conduit and is the kinematic
viscosity (for water at 20C, = 1.004
106 m2/s, dynamic viscosity = 1.002
10Tan Ns/m2 and
3 BFC21103
density = 998.2 kg/m3).
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 Re < 500 the flow is
laminar
500 < Re < 12500 the flow is
transitional
Re > 12500 the
VR flow is
Re
turbulent

The flow is laminar if the viscous forces are

dominant relative to inertia. Viscosity will
determine the flow behaviour. In laminar flow,
water particles move in definite smooth paths.
The flow is turbulent if the inertial forces are
dominant than the viscous force. In turbulent flow,
water particles move in irregular paths which are
not smooth.
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Efect of gravity - depending on the effect of gravity
forces relative to inertial forces, the flow
may be subcritical, critical and
supercritical.
- Froude number represents the ratio
of inertial forcesVto gravity forces,
Fr
gD
where V is the velocity, D is the
hydraulic depth of a conduit and g is
the gravity acceleration (g = 9.81 m/s2).

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Fr < 1 , the flow is in V gD
subcritical state
V gD
Fr = 1 , the flow is in
V gD
critical state
Fr > 1 , the flow is in
supercritical state

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1.5 Regimes of
Flow
A combined effect of viscosity and gravity may
produce any one of the following four regimes of flow
in an open channel:

a. subcritical - laminar, when Fr < 1 and Re < 500

b. supercritical - laminar , when Fr > 1 and Re <

500

c. supercritical - turbulent, when Fr > 1 and Re >

12500

d. subcritical - turbulent , when Fr < 1 and Re >

12500

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Assignment
#1
Q1. [Final Exam Sem I, Session 2010/2011]
Justify the difference between:
(a) uniform flow and non-uniform flow
(b) state of flow using Reynolds number Re and Froude
number Fr.

Q2. [Final Exam Sem I, Session 2008/2009]

(a) Define
(i) Wetted perimeter
(ii) Gradually-varied flow
(iii) Non-uniform flow
(iv) Froude number
(b) Explain the differences between canal and sewer.

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Q3. [Final Exam Sem I, Session 2006/2007]
Define
(a) Reynolds number
(b) Froude number
(c) Hydraulic radius
(d) Prismatic channel
(e) Uniform flow

Q4. A discharge of 16.0 m3/s flows with a depth of 2.0 m in a

rectangular
channel of 4.0 m wide. Determine the state of flow
based on
(a) Froude number, and
(b) Reynolds number.

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Q5. A triangular channel of apex angle 120 carries a
discharge of 1573 L/s. Calculate the critical depth.

- End of
Question -

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THANK YOU

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