Concrete Technology-3

Dr B Kameswara Rao,
Adjunct Professor,
Civil Engineering Department,
National Institute of Technology,
Warangal-506004, Telangana State.
 Rule Framed by Hammurabi, a King of
Babylon, who Lived Four Thousand Years Ago

If a Building Collapses Causing Death to the Owner

or His Son, whichever may be the case, the Builder
or his Son will be put to Death.
If a Slave of the House Owner Dies, He shall be
given a Slave of the Same Value.
If other Possessions are Destroyed, these shall be
Restored, and the Damaged Parts of the House
shall be Reconstructed at Builders Cost.
 Choice is
Yours
A Good Quality Concrete Can Be
Developed By the Inferior Quality
Materials By Adopting Stringent
Quality Control at the Site.

It is also Possible to Develop an

inferior Quality Concrete With
Good Quality Materials By Adopting
Poor Quality Control at the Site.
 Why Quality Control is Required in
Concrete Construction?
1. Variations in the Sources of Materials,
2. Variations in the Characteristics Materials,
3. Variations in the Proportioning of Concrete,
4. Variations in Concrete Mixing, Compaction, and
Curing,
5. Variations in the Properties of Fresh and
Hardened Concretes,
6. Variations in the Exposures Conditions,
 Activities Involved in
Quality Control
1. Sampling, Testing, and
Standardization of Materials,
2. Selection of the Materials,
3. Concrete Mix Design,
4. Quality Control on Wet Concrete,
5. Feedback from Hardened Concrete,
6. Lessons from the Construction Site.
Materials Involved in Concrete
Construction

Cement
Aggregates
Water
Mineral
Admixtures
Chemical Admixtures
The Role of Cements in the
Construction
Different Types of Portland Cements

Ordinary Portland Cements

OPC 33
OPC 43
OPC 53
Portland Pozzolana Cements
Portland Slag Cements
Important Requirements
Higher Strength,
Low Heat of Hydration,
Volume Stability,
Proper Setting Timings,
Lesser Water Demand,
Low Porosity,
Lesser Permeability.
 Important Tests
Fine ness,
Standard Consistency,
Soundness (Volume
Stability),
Strength,
Insoluble Residue,
Loss on Ignition.
PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENTS
portland cement + water
=
calcium silicate hydrate
+
calcium hydroxide
pozzolan + calcium
hydroxide + water
= calcium silicate hydrate
 Essential Requirements of
Pozzolanicity

High Amount of Amorphous

Silica

Higher Fineness

Low Loss on Ignition

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PERCENTAGE
OF POZZOLANA IN PPC

Percentage of C3S in the Cement

Pozzolanicity of Pozzolanic Material
Fine-ness of Pozzolanic Material and the
Clinker
Early Age strength of PPC
Curing Temperature
Portland Slag Cements
 TYPES OF SLAGS

1. AIRCOOLED SLAG:
This is slowly cooled in pits and then broken up and crushed for use as
aggregate or granular base,
Hydraulically inert material because of slow cooling,
Not very popular.
2. FOAMED SLAG (EXPANDED SLAG):
Used as light weight aggregate,
The foaming action is obtained by using very limited quantity of water.
3. WATERGRANULATED SLAG:
This is obtained by quenching the molten slag,
Hydraulically reactive material because of sudden cooling.
4. PELLETIZED SLAG:
The slag is pelletized in order to arrest the hydrogen sulphide gas, which
may be harmful to the environment.
 ADVANTAGES OF SLAG IN
CONCRETE
1. Saving in Hydraulic Cement,
2. Low Heat of Hydration,
3. Continued Strength Development,
4. Increased Chemical Resistance,
5. Increased Resistance to Expansive Forces,
6. Pore Refinement and Reduced Permeability.
 THE PERCENTAGE OF SLAG IN CEMENTS

1. In General, the Slag Content of Cement Varies between 10

To 95% depending on the requirements needed for the job.
2. The Indian Standard on Portland Slag Cement (IS: 455
1989) permits the addition of 25 to 65 percent.
3. The upper limit has been increased to 70 percent about ten
years ago,
4. Glass content, Reactivity, and Strength requirement at
early ages,
5. For reduction of Heat of Hydration at least 50% or more is
required,
6. For Sulfate Attack, Chloride Penetration, Seawater, Acid
attack etc. 60 to 70 percent is required,
7. For thin structural members, columns and beams, which
may be subjected to Carbonation: Not more than 50%.
 POSSIBLE PROBLEMS IN ACCEPTING
THE CEMENT
Properties Problems Remedies
Compressive Partially Replace
Low Strength
Strength with Good Cement
Flash Setting,
False Setting, Use Accelerators
Setting Time
Low or High or Retarders
Setting Time
Use Mineral
Sound ness Expansion
Admixtures
Heat of
Excessive Heat Use Pozzolanas
Hydration
WATER
 THE ROLE OF WATER IN CONCRETING

Even distribution of cement in the

concrete.

It reacts with the cement and provides

setting, hardening, and strength to the
concrete.

It lubricates the mix and provides

workability, placeability, and
compactability etc.
 Quality of Water

It should be of Potable and free from Impurities,

The Ground Water has to be verified for its
Chemical Impurities,
Stagnated Water may Contain Organic Impurities,
Flood Water may contain Excessive Silt Content,
Sea Water Creates Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel.
 PERMISSIBLE LIMITS FOR WATER

Permissible Limits
# Material Tested as per
(Max.)

1 Organic IS: 3025 (Part 18) 200 mg/l

2 Inorganic IS: 3025 (Part 18) 3000 mg/l

3 Sulphates (as SO3) IS: 3025 (Part 24) 400 mg/l

2000 mg/l (Plain)

4 Chlorides (as Cl) IS: 3025 (Part 32)
500 mg/l (RC)

5 Suspended Matter IS: 3025 (Part 17) 2000 mg/l

6 pH Value 6 to 8
 The Critical Aspects of the
Construction:
1. Storage of Materials,
2. Proper Cover to the Reinforcing Steel,
3. Proper Beam-Column Joints,
4. Good Finishing,
5. Proper Alignment of Columns,
6. Ductile Detailing of Secondary Reinforcement (providing
appropriate hooks for the stirrups and lateral ties),
7. Water-Proofing Treatment in Retaining Walls & Grade Slab,
8. Following Proper Construction Methodology.
 Storage of
Reinforcing Steel
 Parameters Responsible for
Variation in Quality of Concrete
Variation in the Properties of Cement

Bogues compounds (C3A, C3S, C2S, C4AF),

Fineness,
Setting time,
Soundness,
Strength,
Percentage of alkalies,
Insoluble residue etc.
Variation in the Properties of Aggregates

Particle Size Distribution,

Shape,
Moisture Content,
Water Absorption,
Strength,
Silt Content,
Specific Gravity
Variation in the Properties of Water

Chloride Content,
Sulphate Content,
pH Value,
Organic Impurities,
Alkali Content,
Silt Content,
Solids Content.
Variation in the Properties of Fly Ash

Loss on Ignition,
Fineness,
Variation in CaO,
Variation in SO3,
Reactivity with Different Cements,
Reactivity at Different Temperatures,
Variation in other Chemical Components.
Variation in the Properties of Fresh
Concrete

Workability,
Retention of Workability,
Bleeding,
Segregation,
Volume Change etc.
Variation in the Properties of Hardened
Concrete
Rate of Strength Development,
Volume Change,
Uniformity,
Porosity,
Permeability,
Unit Weight,
Variation in Ambient Conditions

Ambient temperature,
Relative humidity,
Wind speed
Testing Procedures and Testing
Equipment

Rate of loading,
Smoothness of platens,
Capping,
Specimen size etc.
 Critical Parameters

Only two or three parameters are

responsible for 70 to 80 percent of
variations.

Only one parameter may be responsible

for 50 percent variation.
 The Main Requirements of Concrete
Mix Design

Adequate Strength,
Required Workability,
Durability to Resist Aggressive Environments,
Economical.
 Critical Parameters for Strength

Compare actual and predicted strength at the trial

mix stage and if there is any discrepancy, track it
down.

This may provide a firm lead on what is most likely

to affect strength on the particular project.
 Critical Parameters for Workability
Water-Binder Ratio,
Grading of the Aggregates,
Quality of Cement,
Water Content,
Quality, quantity, type of mineral and chemical
admixtures,
Shape of particles,
Heat of hydration,
Ambient conditions etc.

Adjustment for the workability involves in adjusting

some of the above parameters
 Significance of Control Actions
(In big projects)

Create data base on the properties of concrete by

intentionally making some known changes in the concrete
mix and record corresponding changes in the strength,
workability etc.
These changes could be:
Changes in the quality and quantity of cement,
Changes in the source of aggregates,
Change in the ambient temperature, and
Changes in the water content, w/b ratio, mineral and chemical
admixtures.
The obtained knowledge in the above variations will be helpful
in controlling quality of the concrete from time to time.
 Quick Response of the
System
(Accelerated Testing)

Better not to wait for 28 days,

Develop some correlation plots,
Validate them from time to
time.
 The Other Aspects of Quality Are:

Adequate Durability,
Low Permeability,
Acceptable Appearance,
Dimensional Stability,
Surface Texture.

The above qualities are not independent. They are interdependent.

Factors Involved in Achieving Durability

Cover to reinforcement,
Low permeability,
Resistance to aggressive chemicals,
Resistance to cracking,
 Low Permeability
Compaction and Uniformity,
Water/cement ratio,
Curing,
Freedom from cracks,
Absence of bleeding,
Presence of pozzolanic materials,
Use of air entrainment,
Suitable aggregate grading.
 Durability of Concrete

Ability to Resist Weathering

Action, Chemical Attack, Abrasion,
or Any Process of Deterioration
 TWO ASPECTS OF DURABILITY
INTERNAL EFFECTS:
EXTERNAL EFFECTS
Permeability
Sulfate Attack
Alkali-Aggregate
Chloride Penetration
Reaction
Acid Attack
Corrosion
Carbonation
Heat of Hydration
Elevated Temperatures
Abrasion & Erosion
Chemical Attack
Marine Environment
 Durability of Concrete (As Per IS:
456)
A durable concrete is one that
performs satisfactorily in the working
environment during its anticipated
exposure conditions during service.
The materials and mix proportions
specified and used should be such as
to maintain its integrity, and if
applicable, to protect embedded
steel from corrosion.
 Maintaining Durability
One of the main characteristics influencing the
durability of concrete is its permeability to the
ingress of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride,
sulphate and other potentially deleterious
substances.

Impermeability is governed by the constituents

and workmanship used in making the concrete.
with normal-weight aggregates.

A suitably low permeability is achieved by having:

an adequate cement content,
sufficiently low free water/cement ratio,
by ensuring complete compaction of the
concrete,
 The Factors Influencing

Durability
the environment,
the cover to embedded steel,
the type and quality of constituent
materials,
the cement content and
water/cement ratio of the concrete,
workmanship, to obtain full
compaction and efficient curing,
the shape and size of the member.
Environmental Exposure Conditions (IS: 456- 2000)

# Environment Exposure Conditions

Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive
1. Mild conditions, except those situated in coastal area.
Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst
wet. Concrete exposed to condensation and rain. Concrete
2. Moderate continuously under water. Concrete in contact or buried under
non aggressive soil/ground water. Concrete surfaces sheltered
from saturated salt air in coastal area.

Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting &

drying or occasional freezing whilst wet or severe condensation.
3. Severe Concrete completely immersed in sea water. Concrete exposed
to coastal environment.
Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes
4. Very Severe or severe freezing conditions whilst wet. Concrete in contact with
or buried under aggressive sub-soil/ground water.
Surfaces of members in tidal zone. Members in direct contact
5. Extreme with liquid/solid aggressive chemicals.
 PERMEABILITY
Ingress of Aggressive Solutions
Removal of Dissolved Reaction Products
out of the Concrete

Lesser the Permeability, the Greater is the

Resistance to the Aggressive Solutions or Pure
Water.
 Water Causes

Chemical Processes of
Degradation

Physical Processes of
Degradation
 Water in Concrete
In concrete, water is a necessary ingredient for
the cement hydration and to provide workability.

Gradually, most of the evaporable water in

concrete is lost, leaving the pores empty or
unsaturated.

Concrete will not be vulnerable to water-related

destructive phenomena if there is a little or no
evaporable water left after drying and provided
that the subsequent exposure of the concrete to
the environment did not cause to resaturation of
the pores.

The latter, to a large extent, depends on the

 Permeability
Concrete of lower w/c ratio exhibits lower
permeability,
An OPC, whose heat of hydration is more, develops
micro-cracking and porous microstructure, and
there by induces higher permeability to concrete,
A slow setting OPC or an OPC developing lower rate
of strength gain gives dense microstructure to the
hardened concrete and induces better
impermeability to the concrete,
OPCs having higher fineness develop, higher
impermeability at early ages. But some people
express that, these cements develop higher
amounts of heat of hydration, drying shrinkage and
as a result of this, micro-cracks will develop and
there by the concrete may give higher permeability
Reduction in Permeability of a 0.7
w/c Cement Paste with the
Progress of Hydration
Coefficient of
Age
Permeability (cm/s
(Days)
10-11)
Fresh 20,000,000
5 4,000
6 1,000
8 400
13 50
24 10
Ultimate 6
 Different Types of Tests
for Permeability

Permeability of Concrete with respect to

Water.
Permeability of Concrete with respect to
Air.
Chloride Ion Penetration.
 Something About RCPT

It takes care of Diffusion, Migration, Capillary Suction,

Adsorption, and Desorption.

The method was developed between 1981 and 1988 by D.

Whiting from Federal State Highway Authority.

This was adopted by American Association of State and

Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) in early 90s and
by ASTM in late 90s.

It is more easy and faster to conduct this test.

It is well accepted test method all over the World.

Schematic Diagram of RCPT Cell
 Results of Chloride Penetrability Test as per ASTM C 120

Charge Passed Chloride ion penetrability as per

Type of Concrete
(Coulombs) ASTM 1202-97
1578 Low
Plain Concrete 1772 Low
1922 Low
139 Very Low
Fly ash Concrete 104 Very Low
169 Very Low
556 Very Low
Slag Concrete 710 Very Low
602 Very Low
380 Very Low
Fly ash & Micro
287 Very Low
Silica Concrete
258 Very Low
Chloride Ion Penetrability Based on Charge Passed
(According to ASTM C 1202)

Chloride Ion Penetrability Charge Passed (Coulombs)

High >4,000
Moderate 2,000-4,000
Low 1,000-2,000
Very Low 100-1,000
Negligible <100
 HOW FLY ASH CAN REDUCE PERMEABILITY?

Finer than Cement, Hence Reduction in Pore Size.

PozzolanicReaction Converts Ca(OH)2 in to CSH

gel and makes the Concrete more Dense.

TheSpherical Shape of Fly Ash Particles and their

Hydrophobic Action Reduce the Water Demand and
Decreases Permeability.
Why Permeability is most Important
Phenomenon in Concrete?
It represents the case with which water (other fluids) can move
through concrete, there by transporting aggressive agents.

Movement of Sulfate ions takes place through the

Sulfate Attack transport of the fluids.
Moisture acts as the media for the Diffusion or
Chloride Ion Penetration Migration of Chloride Ions.
Water molecules act as vehicles for carrying CO2 in
Carbonation
to the concrete.
This also takes place through the movement of
Leaching of Lime moisture.
Movement of alkali ions to the aggregates and
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction water to the swelling gel.

Escape of steam from heated layers causing

Fire Resistance spalling.
 Different Transport Mechanisms &
Definitions
Transfer of mass by random motion of free molecules or
ions in the pore solution resulting in a net flow from
Diffusion
regions of higher concentration to regions of
concentration of the diffusing substance.

Permeation Flow of liquids or gases caused by a pressure head.

Capillary Transport of liquids in porous solids due to surface

Suction tension acting in capillary pores.

Fixation of molecules on solid surfaces due to mass forces

Adsorption
in mono or multi-molecular layers.

Desorption Liberation of adsorbed molecules from solid surfaces.

Transport of ions in electrolytes due to the action of an

Migration
electrical field as the driving force.
Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in
Concrete
 Definition of Corrosion

Destruction of Metal by Chemical,

Electrochemical,
or Electrolytic reaction within its
Environment
 Introduction

This is a severe problem in the Civil

Engineering. It drains resources in both the
public and private sectors.
Corrosion can be seen in Marine Structures,
Chemical Industries, Buildings, Highway
Bridges, Parking Structures and Pavements.
This is the severe problem which dictates
the Service Life of Structures.
Solutions are needed, both in the design
and rehabilitation.
Reaction Products
and their Volumes
Fe Fe++ + 2e
2Fe++ + 4OH 2Fe(OH)2
2Fe(OH)2 + O2 2FeOOH + H2O
Fe + OH + H2O HFeO2 + H2
Anodic Reaction

2H2O + O2 + 4e 4 (OH)
2H+ + 2e H2

Cathodic Reaction
Enemies for Reinforcing Steel

Chlorides
Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen
Humidity
 CHLORIDE
RESISTANCE
OF
FLY ASH
CONCRETES
Chloride Attack on a Kerb of a Bridge
Chloride Attack Below
A Deck Slab
Chloride Attack on Both
Off-Shore and On-Shore
RC Structures.
 Sources of Chlorides
1. Concrete Making Materials
Cement, Aggregates, Water, Mineral &Chemical Admixtures.

2. Sea Water Exposure

Penetration at Interface Zone or Splash Zone is Maximum.
Penetration below Water level is less Compared to Laboratory
Studies. Films of Mg(OH)2 CaCO3 will form a Layer.

3. Deicing Salts
CaCl2 and NaCl
4. Fire Accidents
Decomposition of PVC
5. Other Sources
Soil and Industrial Environment
 CRITICAL CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION

1. A Critical Chloride Concentration is one, which breaks

down Protective Environment around Reinforcing Steel

2. The Threshold Value of Cl-/OH- is 0.6

3. The Threshold Concentration Depends on Type of Cation.

The Diffusion Coefficient Depends on Cation. The Order
is:
MgCl2>CaCl2>KCl>NaCl

4. This is a Critical Parameter for Service Life of RC

Structures
 Specified Chloride Limits

1. General Range: 0.4 to 0.6% by wt. of Cement.

2. According to RILEM Report up to 1.5% by wt. of Cement

can be allowed in Dense Concretes.

3. British Code allows 0.35% by wt. of Cement in Fresh

Concrete.

4. ACI Committee 222 Recommends:

0.10% in RCC
0.06% in PSC

5. IS: 456-2000 Recommends:

Steam Cured or PSC 0.4 (Kg/m3)
RCC 0.6 (Kg/m3)
Plain Concrete 3.0 (Kg/m3)
Critical Chloride
Content as per
CEB
Recommendation
Interaction Diagram of pH Value and Chloride
Content in Corrosion Damaged Concrete
Resistance to Entry of Chlorides
Pozzolanic Reaction and Low Permeability of the
System;
The Concrete has to be Designed with Lower
Water/Cementitious Ratio;
Adequate Curing is Required to form Dense
Micro-Structure.
CARBONATION
Carbonation Induced Corrosion (Uniform Corrosion)
Vigyan Bhawan (Annexe Building)
 Ill-Effects of
Carbonation
Increase in Permeability
Increase in Shrinkage
Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel

Favorable Conditions for Carbonation

Availability of CO2
Relative Humidity should be in Between 50 to 75%
The Average Pore-Size should be Above 1000 Ao
Un-Favorable Conditions

RH 0-50% or 75-100%
Average Pore-Size Less Than 650 Ao
Carbonation
Process

Passivating film
 CaCO CaCO + Ca(OH)
3 3 2

Ca(OH)
2

pH

Concrete
Passivating

Steel bar
film

pH >12
pH<9

9<pH<12

Implication of carbonation on reinforcement corrosion

a. Loss of CH and consequent reduction of pH
b. Deposition of CaCO3 /Ca(HCO3)2
Environmental Exposure Conditions (IS: 456- 2000)

# Environment Exposure Conditions

Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive
1. Mild conditions, except those situated in coastal area.
Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst
wet. Concrete exposed to condensation and rain. Concrete
2. Moderate continuously under water. Concrete in contact or buried under
non aggressive soil/ground water. Concrete surfaces sheltered
from saturated salt air in coastal area.

Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting &

drying or occasional freezing whilst wet or severe condensation.
3. Severe Concrete completely immersed in sea water. Concrete exposed
to coastal environment.
Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes
4. Very Severe or severe freezing conditions whilst wet. Concrete in contact with
or buried under aggressive sub-soil/ground water.
Surfaces of members in tidal zone. Members in direct contact
5. Extreme with liquid/solid aggressive chemicals.
Requirements of Durability as per IS: 456-2000
Plain Concrete Reinforced Concrete

Exposure Min. Cement Max. Min. Min. Cement Min.

Max. w/c
Content w/c Grade of Content Grade of
Ratio
(kg/m3) Ratio Concrete (kg/m3) Concrete

Mild 220 0.60 - 300 0.55 M 20

Moderate 240 0.60 M 15 300 0.50 M 25

Severe 250 0.50 M 20 320 0.45 M 30

Very
260 0.45 M 20 340 0.45 M 35
Severe

Extreme 280 0.40 M 25 360 0.40 M 40

 Critical Parameters for the Performance

Location of
Critical Parameters
Concrete
Pavements Abrasion, Freezing and Thawing,
Hydraulic Heat of Hydration, Abrasion, Erosion,
Structures Cavitation, ASR,
On Shore Chloride Penetration,
Structures
Off Shore
Sulfate Attack , Chloride Penetration,
Structures
Mass Concrete Heat of Hydration
Bridge Decks Abrasion, Freezing and Thawing,
Foundations Sulfate Attack, Acid Attack,
Metropolitan Carbonation,
Cities
 Cover Over Steel
A cover of 25mm is inadequate for severe
conditions, even if the concrete has a w/c
ratio as low as 0.30.

Chloride content in the top 12mm of

concrete can be very high compared with
those at depths of 25 to 50mm, even in
concrete with a w/c ratio of 0.30.

Cover for moderate-to-severe

environments should be a minimum of
38mm and preferably at least 50mm.
 Influence of Cover and w/c Ratio on Corrosion

Concrete that will be exposed to sea waters,

should be as low as possible and preferably less
than 0.40.

If this w/c ratio cannot be achieved, a maximum

w/c ratio of 0.45 can be used, provided that the
thickness of cover over the steel is increased.

For severe marine exposure, a minimum concrete

cover of 75mm should be used.

AASHTO recommends 100mm of cover for cast-in-

place concrete, and 75mm of cover for precast
piles in marine environments.

These recommended w/c ratios apply for all types

Sulfate Attack
 Sulfate Attack----Occurrence
Natural sulfates of sodium, potassium, calcium,
or magnesium, that can attack hardened
concrete, are sometimes found in soil or
dissolved in groundwater adjacent to concrete
structures.
Sulfate salts in solution enter the concrete and
attack the cementing materials. If evaporation
takes place from a surface exposed to air, the
sulfate ions can concentrate near that surface
and increase the potential for causing
deterioration.
Sulfate attack has occurred at various locations
 Sulfate Attack----Occurrence
The water used in concrete cooling towers can also be
a potential source of sulfate attack, because of the
gradual build-up of sulfates due to evaporation,
particularly where such systems use relatively small
amounts of make-up water.

Sulfate ions can also be present in fill containing

industrial waste products, such as slags from iron
processing, cinders, and groundwater leaching these
materials.
 SULFATE ATTACK
The Persons worked on topic: Dunstan and PK Mehta

The Factors Influencing Sulfate Attack

The amount and nature of the sulphate
present,
(MgSO4, Na2SO4, K2SO4, & Ammonium
Sulphate)
The level of the water table and its
seasonal variation,
The flow of ground water and soil porosity,
The form of construction,
The quality of the concrete.
 Sulphate Attack in Concrete and
Mortar
Sulphate Attack can be External' or
Internal
External: due to penetration of
sulphates in solution, in
groundwater into the concrete from
outside.
Internal: due to a soluble source being
incorporated into the concrete
at the time of mixing, gypsum in
 External Sulphate Attack

Extensive cracking,
Expansion,
Loss of bond between the
cement paste and aggregate,
Alteration of paste composition,
with monosulfate phase
converting to ettringite
formation.
MANIFESTATIONS OF SULFATE ATTACK

Conversion of Ca(OH)2 into Gypsum and

Crystallization of this Compound, with
Consequent Expansion (124%) and
Disruption.
Conversion of C3A to Hydrated Calcium
Sulpho-Aluminates (Ettringite). The
Products of this Reaction Occupy Greater
Volume (227%) and tends to Cause
Expansion and Disintegration.
 Internal Sulphate Attack

In the 1980s, German researchers reported

internal sulphate attack in heat-cured
concrete products. The typical manifestation
of distress is the presence of voids around
the coarse aggregate, indicating expansion
of the cement paste. Often these voids are
filled with ettringite crystals, which also
often fill other voids and cracks in the
matrix. Because of the late precipitation of
ettringite, this phenomenon is called
delayed ettringite formation.
 Internal Sulphate Attack
Occurs where a source of sulphate is
incorporated into the concrete when
mixed. Examples include the use of
sulphate-rich aggregate, excess of
added gypsum in the cement or
contamination.

Proper screening and testing

procedures should generally avoid
internal sulphate attack.
Smaller Gap Around Smaller Aggregate
and Bigger Gap Around Bigger
Aggregate
DEF
DEF
 Requirements of Concrete Exposed to
Sulphate Attack
Dense Fully
Concentration of Sulphates Compacted Concrete
with 20mm MSA
Cla In Soil Type of
ss In Cement Minimum
Total SO3 in 2:1 Maximu
Ground Cement
SO3 Water : Soil m Face
Water Content
(Percent Extract (g/l) w/c Ratio
(g/l) kg/m3
)
OPC, PSC, or
1 <0.2 <1.0 <0.3 280 0.55
PPC
0.2 to OPC, PSC, PPC 330 0.50
2 1.0 to 1.9 0.3 to 1.2
0.5 SSC or SRC 310 0.5
0.5 to SSC or SRC 330 0.50
3 1.9 to 3.1 1.2 to 2.5
1.0 PPC or PSC 350 0.45
1.0 to
4 3.1 to 5.0 2.5 to 5.0 SSC or SRC 370 0.45
2.0
Mechanism of Counteracting Sulfate Att
Fly ash combines with free lime and
reduces the possibility of producing
gypsum,
Fly ash helps to form a dense
microstructure and reduces permeability of
water, which may carry the sulphate ions,
With the partial replacement of OPC with
fly ash, the concentration of C3A is reduced,

Since pozzolanic reaction reduces the

amount of free lime, this reaction makes
the alumina-bearing phase inactive.
Alkali Silica Reaction
 GENESIS
This has been known since 1938,
Recognised in USA and reported by
Stanton in 1940.
This involves reaction between the cement
alkalis and various forms of silica namely,
opal, tridymite, cristabalite, chalcedony,
chert, flint, microcrystalline and
cryptocrystalline quartz, strained quartz
and volcanic glasses etc.
This reaction is similar in appearance to
concrete damaged by sulphate expansion
 PHENOMENA
Warping of structural members and
pavements and mis-alignment of machinery
due to expansion of concrete,
A typical map pattern of cracking,
Presence of resinous gel on the surface of
concrete,
Pop-outs on the surface of the concrete,
Grey discoloration of concrete surfaces
along the edges of cracks,
Damp patches on the surface of the
concrete.
 Allowable Alkali Content
% Na2O equivalent = % Na2O + (%K2O0.658)
An OPC with a Na2O equivalent of more
than 0.6% is regarded as a high-alkali
cement and one that should not be used
with a potentially alkali reactive
aggregate.
This is a fairly arbitrary figure suitable as a
general guideline.
However, it is the total amount of alkali in
the concrete contributed by the cement
that will determine, whether and to what
extent alkali-aggregate reaction will take
 Identification

Careful evaluation of the cause of

cracking of structures is important
because concrete damages by
alkali-aggregate reaction can be
similar in appearance to concrete
damaged by sulphate expansion or
shrinking aggregate.
Major Sources of Alkalis

Cement,
Water used for mixing,
Aggregates containing
alkali salts,
Sea spray, and
De-icing salts.
 What is Alkali-Silica Reaction
(ASR)?
ASR is the most common form of alkali-aggregate
reaction (AAR) in concrete; the other, much less
common, form is alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR).
ASR and ACR are therefore both subsets of AAR.

ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxyl

ions in the alkaline cement pore solution in the
concrete and reactive forms of silica in the
aggregate (eg: chert, quartzite, opal, strained
quartz crystals).

A gel is produced, which increases in volume by

taking up water and so exerts an expansive
pressure, resulting in failure of the concrete. In
 What is Alkali-Silica Reaction
(ASR)?
ASR is the reaction between alkalies (sodium and
potassium) in portland cement and certain siliceous
rocks or minerals, such as opaline chert, strained
quartz, and acidic volcanic glass, present in some
aggregates. The products of the reaction may cause
abnormal expansion and cracking of concrete in
service.
 Conditions Required for ASR to
Occur
Sufficiently high alkali content in the
cement (or alkali from other
sources),

A reactive aggregate, such as chert,

ASR will not occur if there is no

available water in the concrete, since
alkali-silica gel formation requires
water.
 Recommendations of IS:
456 from alternate sources,
Use of non-reactive aggregate
Use of low alkali OPC having total alkali content not more
than 0.6% as Na2O equivalent,

Further advantage can be obtained by use of fly ash

conforming to IS: 3812 or GGBS conforming to IS 12089 as
part replacement of OPC having total alkali content as
Na2O equivalent not more than 0.6% provided fly ash
content is at least 20 percent or slag content is at least 50
percent.
Measures to reduce the degree of saturation of the
concrete during service such as use of impermeable
membranes.
Limiting the cement content in the concrete mix and
thereby limiting total alkali content in the concrete mix.
ACID ATTACK
 Occurren

ces
Water draining from some mines, and some
industrial waters,
The products of combustion of many fuels contain
sulphurous gases that combine moisture to form
sulphuric acid,
Sewage may be collected under conditions that lead
to acid formation,
Peat soils may contain iron sulphide (pyrite), which,
upon oxidation, produces sulphuric acid. Further
reaction may produce sulphate salts, which can
produce sulphate attack.
The other forms of occurrence are:
Mountain water streams and some mineral waters that
contain dissolved CO and H S, which can form
 MECHANISM
The deterioration of concrete by acids is
primarily the result of a reaction between these
chemicals and the calcium hydroxide of the
hydrated Portland cement.

In most cases the chemical reaction results in

the formation of water-soluble calcium
compounds which are then leached away by the
aqueous solutions.

Accelerated deterioration takes place, because

of the sulphate attack mechanism.

If acids or salt solutions are able to reach the

reinforcing steel through cracks or pores in the
concrete, corrosion of the steel can result which
Recommendations

Higher Cement Content,

Lesser w/c Ratio,
Protective Coatings.
Symptoms of Diseases of Structures and
Their Indications
Symptoms Indications
It suffers from Bacteria, Chloride Attack, Sulfate
and Viral Infections Attack, Carbonation, and
ASR
Corrosion of Reinforcing
It Suffers from Cancer
Steel
It Suffers from
Sulfate Attack, and ASR
Inflammation
It Suffers from Hyper Heat of Hydration & Micro
Tension Cracking
Some times It Weeps Permeability, and Seepage
Some Times It Requires
Injection Grouting, Micro-
Chemo Therapy and
Concreting
Radiation
High Performance and
Service Life Prediction of
RC Structures
 Definition of Service Life

As per International Organization for Standardization (1998)

the Service Life of a Structure is Defined as:

Period of time after installation, During which all Conditions

of a Structure or a Part of a Structure Meet or Exceed the
Performance Requirements.
 Historical Background on Service Life of
RC Structures
1. A Survey of RC Structures in the Coastal Areas in USA
was Published in 1917.
Damage in RC Structures was Found to be Due to
Corrosion Above the Water Line.
The Rate of Deterioration was seemed to be much
more in Hotter Southern Regions.
2. In UK, the Sea Action Committee Started Investigation of
Deterioration of RC Structures in Sea Waters in 1916.
3. In UK a field Survey of Durability of RC Buildings was
undertaken in 1954.
4. Deterioration of a Concrete Bridge Built in 1929 near
North Morocco Region occurred within 10 Years. The
Reason was due to Differences in Porosity of Concrete,
Salt Concentration and Due to High Relative Humidity.
5. In 1936, Deterioration of San Mateo Heyward RCC Bridge
occurred in California within 7 Years of Construction Due
 Environmental Conditions Affecting Service Life of
RC Structures
1. Marine Environment:
Corrosion of Steel Due to Chloride Penetration.
Deterioration of Concrete Due to Sulfate Attack.
2. Urban Environment:
Deprivation Protective Environment around the Steel due to
carbonation of Concrete.
3. Industrial Environment:
Chloride Penetration
Sulfate Attack
Acid Attack
Effect of High Temperatures
4. Hydraulic Structures:
Attack Soft Waters
Leaching of Lime
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
Important Aspects Required for Determining
Service Life of RC Structures

An Effective Mechanism for Obtaining Field Data,

Knowledge of the Mechanism of Deterioration
and Factors Causing Disintegration,
The Ability to Simulate the Same in Laboratory
Tests Development of Mathematical Models.
 Degradation Factors and
Processes-I
Degradation
Process Degradation
Factor
Mechanical
Deflection,
Static Loading Deformation
Cracking, Failure
Fatigue, Deflection,
Cyclic Loading
Deformation Cracking, Failure
Vibration,
Impact Loading Fatigue Deflection,
Cracking, Failure
Biological
Micro
Acid Production Leaching
Organisms
 Degradation Factors and Processes-II
Degradation
Process Degradation
Factor
Chemical
Acid or Soft Disintegration of
Leaching
Water Concrete
Acid or Depassivation of
Neutralization
Acidifying Gases Steel
Depassivation of
Carbon Dioxide Carbonation
Steel
Destruction of Depassivation of
Chlorides
Passive Film Steel
Disintegration of
Sulfates Crystal Pressure
Concrete
Alkali-Aggregate Expansion,
Silicate Reaction
 Degradation Factors and
Degradation
Processes-III
Process Degradation
Factor
Physical
Shortening,
Temperature Expansi Legthening,
Change on Restricted
Deformation
Shrinka Shortening,
Change in ge, Legthening,
RH Swellin Restricted
g Deformation
Abrasio Rutting, Wearing,
Traffic
Problems and Remedies in
the Quality of Concrete
Construction
 POSSIBLE PROBLEMS IN ACCEPTING THE CEMENT

Properties Problems Remedies

Compressive Partially Replace
Low Strength
Strength with Good Cement

Flash Setting, False

Setting, Low or Use Accelerators or
Setting Time
High Setting Time Retarders

Use Mineral
Soundness Expansion
Admixtures

Heat of Hydration Excessive Heat Use Pozzolanas

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURES

PROBLEMS Reasons

Low Ambient Temperature

Slow Setting Excessive Dosage
Lower Cement Content
Inadequate Dosage
Improper Grading
Inadequate Workability
Incompatibility with Cement

Air Entrainment
Low Compressive Strength Improper Mix Design
Excessive Dosage
PROBLEMS WITH FRESH CONCRETE

1. Low Workability
2. Bleeding
3. Segregation
4. Slow Setting
5. Fast Setting
 LOW WORKABILITY

REASONS:

Low Water-Cement Ratio

Angularity of Aggregate
Low Paste Content

REMEDIES

Use of Water Reducing Admixtures

Use of Higher Paste Content
Use of Mineral Admixtures
Increasing the Water Content
 BLEEDING

REASONS:
Lack of Fine Material
Improper Grading
Un-Favorable Atmospheric Conditions
Excessive Water Content

REMEDIES

Increasing More Fines Such as Pozzolanas

Adopting Proper Grading
 SLOW SETTING

Reasons:
1. Presence of Certain Organic Materials
2. Low Ambient Temperature
3. Excessive Volume of Fly ash
4. Excessive Quantity of Naphthalene Based Super
Plasticizer
 FAST SETTING
Reasons:
High Ambient Temperatures
High Heat of Hydration
Presence of an-hydrite or hemi-hydrite Gypsum

Remedies:
Protecting Concrete from High Temperatures
Pre-Cooling Aggregate and Water
Minimizing C3A Content in Cement
Adding Gypsum when Clinker reaches Normal
Temperature
Adding Pozzolanas to Reduce Heat of Hydration
PROBLEMS IN HARDENED CONCRETE

1. Low Compressive Strength,

2. Cracking,
3. Volume Change (Shrinkage or Expansion),
4. Honey Combing,
5. Scaling.
 LOW COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Reasons:
Higher Water Demand for the Mix
Improper Compaction
Improper Curing
Improper Utilization Admixtures

Remedies:
Utilization of Water Reducing Admixtures
Providing Adequate Compaction and Curing
Adopting Proper Gradation of Aggregates
 HONEY COMBING
Reasons:
Improper Grading
Inadequate Paste Content
Over Vibration

Remedies:
Adopting Proper Grading
Providing Sufficient Paste Content
Providing Adequate Vibration
 CRACKING
Reasons:
Drying Shrinkage
Plastic Shrinkage
Corrosion of Steel
Excessive Strain
Remedies:
Adopting Proper Grading
Providing Adequate Curing
Using Good Quality of Aggregate
Adopting Precautions against Heat
of Hydration and Other Problems
 SCALING

Reasons
Over Troweling,
Improper Curing or Lack of Curing,
Insufficient Protection of Concrete in
Cold Weather,

Remedies
Avoid Troweling of the Surface when Bleed Water is Still
Present,
Provide Adequate Curing
 VOLUME CHANGE (Shrinkage)

Reasons:
Lack of Proper Curing
Carbonation
Windy and Sunny Atmosphere
Excessive Fine Material
Excessive Water

Remedies
Providing Adequate Curing
Protecting Concrete from Wind and High Temperatures
Optimum Utilization of Cement and Water
Utilization of Pozzolanic Materials
Performance Criteria
for the Proportioning
of Concrete Mixes
 Performance Criteria
Adequate strength to resist different
types of forces.
Required workability for proper
mixing, transportation and
compaction.
Adequate durability to face the
aggressive environments and to
provide longer service life.
Economical and conserve the energy
and natural resources.
 There are Definite Methods to
Measure
Strength (Testing of Cubes, Cylinders, and Prisms)

Workability (Slump, Compaction Factor, Flow Table

Method, Vee Bee Consistency Method, Kellys Ball
Method etc.)

But there is no definite Method to Quantify the

Durability at the Time of Concrete Mix Proportioning.
Two Types of Parameters to
Consider Durability

1. Prescriptive in Nature

2. Performance Based
 Prescription Based

Parameters
Max. water-binder ratio,
Min. cement content,
Min. compressive strength,
Type of cement,
Limits on the quantities of the
supplementary cementitious
materials,
Limits on the grading of aggregates,
Dosage and the type of chemical
admixtures.
 Performance Based
Parameters
Heat of Hydration,
Porosity and Pore Size Distribution,
Permeability,
RCPT Values,
UPV, Rebound, and CAPO Values,
Alkali-Silica Reaction (Mortar Bar
Expansion),
Resistance to Abrasion, Erosion, and
Cavitation,
Volume Stability (Expansion &
Contraction),
MANIFESTATIONS OF ACTIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel Due to Ingress of Chloride
Ions or Carbonation or Due to the Combination of both.

Cyclic Effect of Expansion & Shrinkage Due to Alternate

Wetting & Drying.

Cyclic Effect of Expansion and Contraction Due to the

Changes in the Ambient Temperature and the Relative
Humidity.

Decomposition of Concrete and the Leaching of Lime Due

to the Industrial and Acidic Environment.
STATE-OF-THE-ART
1. The durability of concrete is controlled by specifying
certain requirements for:
Concrete composition and characteristics of its
constituents;
Casting, compaction, curing and compressive strength.

2. According to Hillsdorf (1989), this approach frequently

yields unsatisfactory results, and it is a common objective
of concrete researchers and engineers to develop
performance criteria that would allow more reliable
estimates of the potential durability of a given concrete mix
and of the probable durability of a concrete structure.
3. In many codes and specifications, the compressive strength
of concrete, the limit for maximum w/c ratio and the limit for
minimum cement content are used as criteria for ensuring
durability.

4. It is generally accepted that concretes resistance to the

penetration of aggressive media largely governs concrete
durability. Therefore, a criterion that is based upon such
resistance would be the most reliable approach.
The Advantages That Are Not Being Exploited at the Time
of Concrete Mix Design

The pore-filling effect of certain supplementary

cementitious materials, which in turn reduce
permeability of concrete and improvement in its
Durability.

The reduction in permeability of concrete due to the

effect of secondary reaction which creates a dense
micro-structure in the case of supplementary
cementitious materials over a period of time.
Environmental Exposure Conditions (IS: 456- 2000)

# Environment Exposure Conditions

Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive
1. Mild conditions, except those situated in coastal area.
Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst
wet. Concrete exposed to condensation and rain. Concrete
2. Moderate continuously under water. Concrete in contact or buried under
non aggressive soil/ground water. Concrete surfaces sheltered
from saturated salt air in coastal area.

Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting &

drying or occasional freezing whilst wet or severe condensation.
3. Severe Concrete completely immersed in sea water. Concrete exposed
to coastal environment.
Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes
4. Very Severe or severe freezing conditions whilst wet. Concrete in contact with
or buried under aggressive sub-soil/ground water.
Surfaces of members in tidal zone. Members in direct contact
5. Extreme with liquid/solid aggressive chemicals.
Broad Classification of Exposure
Conditions
Concretes located away from Coastal,
Urban, and Industrial Environments
(Mild),
Concretes Located in Coastal
Environments,
Concretes Located in Urban
Environments,
Concretes Located in Industrial
Environments,
Another Classification

Interior Concretes
Exterior Concretes
Possible Critical Parameters for
Urban Environment

Depth of Carbonation,
Permeability,
Corrosion Resistance
etc.
Possible Critical Parameters for
Coastal Environment

Diffusion of Chloride
Ions,
Permeability,
Corrosion Resistance
etc.
Possible Critical Parameters for
Industrial Environment

Diffusion of Chloride
Ions,
Sulfate Resistance,
Permeability,
Corrosion Resistance
etc.
Possible Critical Parameters for
Hydraulic Structures

Heat of Hydration,
Alkali-Silica Reaction,
Permeability,
Acid Attack (Reaction of Soft
Water with Concrete) etc.
Broad Classification Based
on Strength
Concretes of grade M50 and
below,

Concretes above M50 grade.

 Broad Classification of
Workability
Concretes placed at the site and
compacted by pin vibrator,
Concretes placed by pumping and
compacted by pin vibrator,
Concretes placed at the site and
compacted by the Rollers.
 Critical Parameters for the Performance

Location of
Critical Parameters
Concrete
Pavements Abrasion, Freezing and Thawing,
Hydraulic Heat of Hydration, Abrasion, Erosion,
Structures Cavitation, ASR,
On Shore Chloride Penetration,
Structures
Off Shore
Sulfate Attack , Chloride Penetration,
Structures
Mass Concrete Heat of Hydration
Bridge Decks Abrasion, Freezing and Thawing,
Foundations Sulfate Attack, Acid Attack,
Metropolitan Carbonation,
Cities
Why I Want to Express Durability in Terms Permeability?
It represents the case with which water (other fluids) can move
through concrete, there by transporting aggressive agents.

Movement of Sulfate ions takes place through the

Sulfate Attack transport of the fluids.
Moisture acts as the media for the Diffusion or
Chloride Ion Penetration Migration of Chloride Ions.
Water molecules act as vehicles for carrying CO2 in
Carbonation
to the concrete.
This also takes place through the movement of
Leaching of Lime moisture.
Movement of alkali ions to the aggregates and
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction water to the swelling gel.

Escape of steam from heated layers causing

Fire Resistance spalling.
 Different Transport Mechanisms &
Definitions
Transfer of mass by random motion of free molecules or
ions in the pore solution resulting in a net flow from
Diffusion
regions of higher concentration to regions of
concentration of the diffusing substance.

Permeation Flow of liquids or gases caused by a pressure head.

Capillary Transport of liquids in porous solids due to surface

Suction tension acting in capillary pores.

Fixation of molecules on solid surfaces due to mass forces

Adsorption
in mono or multi-molecular layers.

Desorption Liberation of adsorbed molecules from solid surfaces.

Transport of ions in electrolytes due to the action of an

Migration
electrical field as the driving force.
 Different Types of Tests
for Permeability

Permeability of Concrete with respect to

Water.
Permeability of Concrete with respect to
Air.
Chloride Ion Penetration.
 Something About RCPT

It takes care of Diffusion, Migration,

Capillary Suction, Adsorption, and
Desorption.
The Method was Developed Between 1981
and 1988 by D. Whiting from Federal State
Highway Authority.
This was adopted by American Association
of State and Highway Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) in early 90s and by ASTM
in late 90s.
It is more easy and faster to conduct this
Some Criticism About RCPT

The specimen gets heated up due to high voltage. The test

may not represent the ambient condition.

The other negatively charged ions also may get transported

in the given electrical field.

This may not be suitable for concretes with larger size

aggregates.

Chloride Ions may get transported weak interfaces and

micro-cracks.
Schematic Diagram of RCPT Cell
 Results of Chloride Penetrability Test as per ASTM C 120

Charge Passed Chloride ion penetrability as per

Type of Concrete
(Coulombs) ASTM 1202-97
1578 Low
Plain Concrete 1772 Low
1922 Low
139 Very Low
Fly ash Concrete 104 Very Low
169 Very Low
556 Very Low
Slag Concrete 710 Very Low
602 Very Low
380 Very Low
Fly ash & Micro
287 Very Low
Silica Concrete
258 Very Low
 Requirements of Durability as per IS: 456-
2000
Min.
Max. Min. Grade The Tentative
Exposur Cement Designatio
# w/c of Range
e Content n
Ratio Concrete (Coulombs)
(kg/m3)

1. Mild 300 0.55 M 20 C1 >3500

Moderat
2. 300 0.50 M 25 C2 3500-1500
e
3. Severe 320 0.45 M 30 C3 1500-800
Very
4. 340 0.45 M 35 C4 800-300
Severe
5. Extreme 360 0.40 M 40 C5 <300
Chloride Ion Penetrability Based on Charge Passed
(According to ASTM C 1202)

Chloride Ion Penetrability Charge Passed (Coulombs)

High >4,000
Moderate 2,000-4,000
Low 1,000-2,000
Very Low 100-1,000
Negligible <100
Details of Control Mixes
Ceme w/c 7th Day 28th Day Min. Grade
Mix Water FA 10mm 20mm
nt ratio Strength Strength of Concrete
C1 300 0.55 162 752 451.2 676.8 23.00 25.67 M 20
C2 300 0.50 144 767 460.44 690.66 22.83 29.00 M 25
C3 320 0.45 137.6 767 460.25 690.37 26.67 31.00 M 30
C4 340 0.45 146.2 714 465.94 698.91 28.50 36.67 M 35
C5 360 0.40 136.8 679 482.72 724.08 30.00 43.00 M 40

Charge Passed Through Each specimen

Mix
(Coulombs)
C1 4451, 3673, 4368, 3748, 4567, and 4321
C2 3325, 3461, 2551, 1721, 1641, and 1521
C3 1325, 1461, 853, 1231, 1467, and 1067
C4 761, 343, 451, 671, 583, and 433
C5 275, 253, 143, 154, 75, and 146
 Experimental work
Water-Binder Ratios: 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5
Replacement Levels:
GGBS 30%, 50%, and 70%
Fly Ash 20%, 40%, and 60%
Max. Size of Aggregate: 20mm
Gradation of Sand: Zone II
% of Super Plasticizer: 1.5 by wt. of binder.
 Two Places for a Structural
FirstEngineer
Place: Structure Itself
Structural Design, Execution,
New
Quality Control & Quality
Structure
Assurance.
Old Protection, Maintenance,
Structure Repair & Retrofitting.
Second Place: Batching Plant
It is a Kitchen for Developing Varieties of
Concretes: Mass Concreting, Ready Mixed
Concreting, Under Water Concreting, Roller
Compacted Concreting, Pumped Concreting, Self
Compacted Concreting, Cellular Light Weight
Concreting, High Strength Concretes, High
 Innovative Materials
for Repairs & Rehabilitation
Repair of Vigyan Bhavan
Annex Building
 Visual Observations
Vigyan Bhawan Annexe Building is about 60
years old two storied RCC framed building.
It accommodates the offices of various
commissions of Government of India and the
CPWD office. It also accommodates two
meeting halls and large common area and
two courtyards in its ground floor.
Minor to major cracks in columns,
Spalling of cover concrete,
Honeycombing, absence of cement paste
in the concrete,
Scaled corrosion of all exposed
 Visual Observations (Contd.)

Bulging of concrete, broken lateral ties in the columns,

Columns on East and North face have comparatively
more issue than other two faces,
Cracking and spalling of concrete is more in lower 4
meters (up to 1st floor),
Cantilever projection at the slab level also shows spalling
of concrete and corrosion of steel,
Columns above 1st floor level appear to be in more sound
condition as compared to the bottom level.
Cracks, spalling of concrete, exposure and snapping of re
bars were observed in beams and Columns at various
locations in the structure,
Spalling of concrete and exposure of re bars were
observed in the bottom slab at a few locations.
pical examples of corroded reinforcement and spalled concre
Bursting of Corroded
Reinforcing Steel
Vertical Cracks in Columns
Spalling of Cover Concrete
cal Example of Severity of Corrosion and Spalled Co
cal Example of Severity of Corrosion and Spalled Con
Typical Example of Severity of Corrosion and
Drainage Pipe Embedded in the Column
Structure Preparation
Surface Preparation
Application Primer
Application of Putty
Cutting Fabric
Saturating Fabric
Saturating Fabric
Applying Fabric
Monitoring Quality Control
Applying Second Saturate Coat & Sand Pasting
Applying Top Coat For Exposed Surface
Finished Structure
Delamination of Cover Concrete
Damage to External
Column
Spalling of Cover Concrete
 Inadequate
Workability and
Improper Compaction
Spalling of Cover Concrete
Damage to Bridge Girder
Repair
Damage due to the
Earthquake,
Corrosion, and Poor
Detailing
Another Damage
due to the
Earthquake
Black Staining Due to Corrosion
Damage of the Footing of Rotory Kiln
Corrosion Damage and Repair of a Chimney
 Rehabilitation Procedure
Surface Preparation
Sealing of Cracks/Strengthening of
Core Matrix
Reinforcement Treatment
Concrete Impregnation
Sectional Reconstruction
Protective Coating
 Surface Preparation

Chipping, Sandblasting, removal of loose

concrete.

Detergent cleaning, washing with clean water.

Wire brushing of exposed steel.

Surface Preparation
 Reinforcement Treatment

Application of Alkaline Rust Converter

Corrosion Inhibition- Bipolar Corrosion

Inhibitor

Passivation - IPN System

Reinforcement Treatment
 Concrete Impregnation

Spraying low viscosity high

molecular weight monomer to
strengthen the matrix.

Viscosity of monomer 1-5 cps.

Sectional Reconstruction

Polymer Modified Mortar or

Concrete with Non-Re-
Emulsifiable Polymer Latex
Conforming to ASTM-C-1059 Type
II.
Sectional Reconstruction
 Protective Coating

To prevent further ingress of chlorides,

sulphates.

IPN, Acrylic, PU Coating system.

Protective Coating
MATERIALS FOR
REPAIRS
1. Injection Grouting
a) Structural Cracks
b) Grouting into cement matrix
c) Honeycombs

2. Anti-corrosive treatment to reinforcement

a) Alkaline rust converting system
b) Polymer coatings

3. Migratory Corrosion Inhibitor System

4. Bond Coat
5. Patching Mortar
a) Superplasticised Mortar
b) Polymer Modified Mortar
c) Shotcreting
d) Resin Mortar

6. Fibre Wrapping or Steel Encasement

7. Protective Coating
a) IPN based system
b) Polyurethane system
c) Acrylic system
Repair / Patching Mortars
1. Epoxy Resin Systems

2. Epoxy Modified System

1. Epoxy Resin Systems
Epoxy Resin + Curing Agent + Aggregate
Epoxy Resins
O

C C

Epichlorohydrin+
Bisphenol A
 2. Epoxy Modified System

Cement + Aggregate + Water + Epoxy System

 Polymer Latexes for Cement Modifiers
Elastomeric Natural rubber latexes
Latexes Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR)
Synthetic rubber Chloroprene rubber (CR)
latexes Methyl Methaacrylate-butadiene rubber
Acrylonitrite-butadiene rubber (NBR)

Polyacrylic Ester (PAE)

Thermoplastic Poly (Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate) (EVA or VAE)
Latexes Poly (Styrene Acrylic Ester) (SAE)
Polymer Polyvinyl Acetate (PVAC)
Latexes for Polyvinyl propionate (PVP)
Cement Polypropelene (PP)
Poly (Vinylidene Chloride- Vinyl chloride) (PVDC)
Modifiers
Thermosetting
Epoxy (EP)
Latexes
Asphalt
Rubberized Asphalt
Bituminous Paraffin
Latexes

Mixed Latexes
EL-Monobond-200 Epoxy Modified Mortar
(Proprietary Item)
Properties : Hardened state

1. Non re-emusifiable conforming to ASTM-1059

Type II
2. Excellent Adhesion
3. Higher Mechanical Strength
(Tensile & Flexure)
4. Properties similar to concrete
5. Higher Ductility
6. Lower Water Absorption
7. Lower Drying Shrinkage
 Properties : Hardened state

8. Higher Fracture Toughness

9. Higher Impact Strength
10. Excellent Resistance to penetration of

Chloride Ion
Carbonation
Oxygen
 Stress ( Comp )
Epoxy
Longitudinal Modified
Concrete
Concrete

III
IV

II

Lateral Strain Longitudinal

 Properties
Unit Steel Concrete Epoxy Epoxy Modified
Concrete / Concrete
Mortar
Compression Kg/cm2 2600 300 800 450

Tensile Kg/cm2 2600 40 200 100

Flexure Kg/cm2 3000 60 300 150

Modulus Kg/cm2 2 106 3 105 2 104 3 105

Density Kg/m3 8000 2300 2200 2300

Elongation at (%) 20 0.02 0.1 0.06

break
Coeff of Exp (C) -1 1.2 10-5 1.2 10-5 2.2 10-5 1.3 10-5

Water (%) - 2-3 0.02 0.02

Absorption
Nature of Matrix Elastic Pseudo- Visco-elastic Visco-elastic
plastic
Rehabilitation of a
Bridge
Repairs to Raw Mill
Foundation at a
Cement Plant
Repairs by grouting
to joint between
Hopper and Ring
Beam of a raw
material storage
Silo structure
 Repairs to Concrete
Pavement Cracks by pressure
/ gravity grouting on NH
project
Before Grouting
Before Grouting
After Grouting
After Grouting
Repairs to Chimney
(ACC-Wadi)
Protective Coatings
IFFCO Fertilizer Plant, Gujarat
Urea Prill Tower
Structural Upgradation with
GOLDBOND 1893 Fibre
Wrapping System
Reasons for strengthening the structure

Change in use Deterioration Faulty Structural

construction damage

1. Live Load 1. Missing Reinforcement

Increase 2. Incorrect Reinforcing
2. New Equipment Details
3. Seismic Retrofit 3. Low Concrete Strength
4. Blast Upgrades

1. Corrosion
1. Impact Damage
2. Loss of section
2. Excessive Wear
3. Cracking
 Fiber Composite Materials

Fiber phase Filler Matrix phase

Resin
Carbon Glass Aramid Boron

High tensile
strength (1860- E-Glass S-Glass Kevlar Thermoset Thermoplast
7070 MPa)
High cost
Strength Strength Highly cross linked Not cross linked
(3400 MPa) (4500 MPa) Non recyclable Recyclable
Most popular High cost e.g. Epoxy, e.g. Polyster
Less cost Polyurethane
Mechanical Properties of FRP
MPa

Carbon UD Fiber
2500 Aramid

2000 Glass

1500 Polyester

1000 Resin Matrix

500 Steel

0
%
5 10 15
Advantages of FRP Composites
No corrosion
Higher ultimate strength
Higher elastic modulus
Very good fatigue properties
Low weight-No incresed dead weight
No increase in C/S area
Available in rolls can take complex shapes-Flexible
Clean application
Endless tapes available, therefore no joints
 Experimental Results: Columns
t = 3.2 mm t = 3.2 mm
200

t = 1.6 mm t = 1.6 mm
A x ia l s tr e s s

150

t = 0.8 mm
100 t=0.8 mm

t = 0.4 mm
t = 0.4 mm
50

Bare Bare
0
0.012 0.009 0.006 0.003 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Lateral strain Axial Strain

Experimental Results: Beams
50

40
Strengthened beam
Force 2 F (kN)

(Laminate cross section: 0.3 x 200 mm)

30

20
Beam without bonded
FRP laminate
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Deflection (mm)
Retrofitting Of
Earthquake Damaged
Structure: Gujarat
(2001)
Strengthening Silos for
Albright Wilson Chemicals Ltd, Ambarnath
Reinforcement Treatment:
FEOVERT & IPN Coatings
Horizontal Bands with Polymer
Mortar for Receiving Fiber Wrapping
Application of Primer Application of Putty

Stretching of Fiber Cloth Saturating the Fabric by

over First Coat of Saturant Stamping and Brushing
Before & After..

Completed Silo after

Protective Coating Application
Japanese Consulate
Dahanuker Marg, Kambala Hill, Mumbai
1942 construction
Hotel Leela Palace, Bangalore
Flexure Strengthening
Kamala Mills Parel
Strengthening of Parking Podium Slab, Benhur
Apts., Malabar Hill, Mumbai
Strengthening of Beams for Shear,
JBF Industries, Silvasa
Seismic Retrofitting of ESWR-for KDMC
Seismic Retrofitting of ESWR-for KDMC
 Understanding Earthquake
Its Impact

Shear Failure Insufficient Failure of Crushing of

in Column Confinement Steel Ties Concrete
 Understanding Earthquake
Its Impact

Out-of-Plane In-Plane
Flexure Failure of Shear Failure of
Masonry Walls Masonry Walls
 Understanding Earthquake
Its Impact

Collapse of building due

to soft storey
 Understanding Earthquake
Its Impact

Collapse of building due to

beam-column joint failure
 CARBON FIBER WRAPPING
Limit of construction space,
period, and time

Noise, vibration, dust during work

Preservation of architectural
and/or structural design

Functional performance as well as

structural performance

Serviceability during construction

General Detailing of Wrapping Indicating Direction of Fiber

CF APPLICATION TO BEAM-COLUMN JUNCTION
(FROM INSIDE)
CF APPLICATION TO BEAM-COLUMN JUNCTION
(FROM OUTSIDE)
CARBON FIBER WRAPPING : METHODOLOGY
CARBON FIBER WRAPPING : METHODOLOGY

Surface grinding to get an even surface, all projections to be grounded off

Grind sharp corners to 25 mm radius to avoid stress concentration
Apply Putty on concave areas
Apply Primer to prepared concrete surface
Apply first coat of Saturant by roller or brush
Take precut Superwrap sheet orient properly
Apply second coat of Saturant
For subsequent wrap layer follows the same step except surface preparation
Apply sealer coat, if the structure is left exposed to sunlight
 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CARBON FIBER WRAPPING

Grinding Process Grouting

Grinding of corners to achieve a With Monopol low viscosity
high molecular weight grout
minimum 25 mm radius Grind
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CARBON FIBER WRAPPING

Putty Application Primer Application

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CARBON FIBER WRAPPING

Saturant Application Superwrap Application

 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CARBON FIBER WRAPPING

Second Saturant Coat, if any Bonding Agent

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CARBON FIBER WRAPPING

Plastering
Application of modified plaster
over bond coat within half an hour
 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CARBON FIBER WRAPPING

Grinding Process Grouting Putty Application Primer Application

Superwrap Application Second Saturant Coat Bonding Agent

Saturant Application

Plastering
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1994 California USA
Gaviota Bridge Project

FRP strengthening to seismic-deficient RC bridge piers due

to change of codes to cater for seismic.
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1994 California USA
Gaviota Bridge Project
FRP-strengthened RC
bridge piers withstood
major earthquake of
6.7 magnitude with no
signs of damage.
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1994 California USA
Westside Pavilion Car Park

Damaged
Column

RC columns damaged by earthquake.

 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1994 California USA
Westside Pavilion Car Park
Repair and strengthening to
RC columns using FRP
technology.

Crack repair by epoxy

injection

Strengthened RC columns
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1994 California USA
Arroyo Seco Bridge

Seismic strengthening to RC piers using FRP technology.

 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1994 California USA
Arroyo Seco Bridge

Seismic strengthening to RC piers using FRP technology.

 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1994 California USA
Dodger Stadium

Seismic strengthening to RC columns using FRP

technology.
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1994 California USA
Dodger Stadium
RC columns retrofitted with FRP
technology due to change of code.
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1997 Taiwan
General Instruments Factory

80% of all RC columns at 1st level of factory

damaged by earthquake.
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 1997 Taiwan
General Instruments Factory

Columns repaired and strengthened by FRP to increase

ductility under seismic loading
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 2001 Gujarat India
Petroleum Refinery
Cracks at top
200mm of RC
columns.

181 RC columns supporting tank damaged by earthquake.

Inadequate ties at plastic hinge zone.
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories 2001 Gujarat India
Petroleum Refinery
FRP strengthening to 181
earthquake-damaged RC
columns

Strengthening to
top-half of RC columns
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories Other Projects
CSIA Airport, Mumbai Terminal 1B

FRP Retrofit to
beam/column joints to
conform to IS 13920.
 FRP Seismic Project Case Histories Other Projects
Commercial Bldg, Mumbai
FRP Retrofit to column for
code compliance
Conclusions
Passive confinement provided by FRP jacket is
effective in retrofitting seismic-deficient columns
against potential brittle failure during seismic
event.

Seismic deficient Or Code Non-Compliant RCC

Elements can be retrofitted to be more ductile
than before.
Thanks !