Japanese Attitude for work

If one can do it, I can do it, if no one can do

it, I must do it

Middle Eastern Attitude for work

If one can do it, let him do it, If no one can
do it
ya habibi, how can I do it?
 DRAWING BOARDS
If the left edge of the drafting table has a true straight
and if the surface of the table is smooth then a drawing
board is unnecessary, drafting tape is used to fasten the
drawings. It is also recommended that a backing sheet of
heavy paper be placed between the drawing and drawing
board. However, in most cases a drawing board will be
needed. These vary from

9 inches by 12 inches up to 48 inches by 72 inches or

larger.
The recommended size for students is 20 inches by

24 inches. Drawing boards have been made of

softwood so that thumbtack can easily pushed

down. The left-hand edge of the board is called the

Working Edge, because the T-Square head slides

against it. This edge must be straight.

 The T-Square is composed of a long strip called the
T-SQUARE
Blade fastened at right angle to a shorter piece

called the Head. The upper edge of the blade and

the inner edge of the head are working edges and

must be straight. Do not use the T-square to drive

tacks into the board or for any rough purposes

 GRADES OF PENCILS
Drawing pencils are made of graphite with clay added
in different amounts to make eighteen grades from
9H (the hardest) to 7B (the softest).the smaller
diameter lead pencils are used for the harder grade
while larger diameter lead pencils are used for softer
grades. The degree of hardness in wooden pencil can
be roughly judged by a comparison of the diameters
of lead.
 9H,8H,7H,6H,5H,4H, 3H,2H,H,F,HB,B, 2B,3B,4B,5B,6B,7B
HARD MEDIUM SOFT

Hardness Increases __________ Softness

Increases
The harder grade pencils are used where extreme
accuracy is required e.g. graphical work, charts and
diagrams.

Medium grades are used for general purpose in

technical drawing, sketching,lettering, arrowheads and
free hand work.

Soft grades pencils are too soft to be useful in

mechanical drafting e.g. rough lines and art work.

 SCALES

Scales are used for measuring the lengths or

distances on the drawings with various divisions for

use in different engineering drawings because the

accuracy of the drawing depends upon the proper

use of scales.
 REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION
The ratio of the drawing to the object is

(R.F)
called representative fraction. It is denoted by R.F.

Length of an object in the drawing

R.F = ______________________________
Actual length of the object
 TYPES OF SCALES

Scales are made in a variety of types to meet the

requirement of different kinds of work. For

convenience, scales are classified according to their
uses.

1-Mechanical Engineers Scale

2-Civil Engineer Scale

3-Architectural scale
 Mechanical Engineers
Mechanical Engineers Scale are used mostly for
Scale:-
drawings of machines parts and small structure

where the drawing size is never less than one-

eighth 1/8th the size of actual object.

These scales are used to draw the object on the

actual size, half size, quarter size or eighth size.

(1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8)

Example
to make a drawing of an object to a scale of

size we use the scale which is graduated so

that every inch represent 1 inch. Same

as in quarter size scale inch represent 1

inch.
 2-Civil Engineer Scale:-
This scale is graduated in decimal system. It is

divided into 10,20,30,40 divisions to the inch.

On a 10-Scale, inch is divided into ten equal parts.

One part is generally considered to be equal to 1

foot.
On a 20-Scale, inch is divided into twenty equal

parts. One part is generally considered to be equal

to 1 foot.

These scales are most commonly used for drawing

maps.
 3-Architectural scale:-
Architectural scales are used for drawings of

buildings and other large structures. It is divided in

proportional feet and inches. These are available in

Full, Half, Quarter, Eighth

1, , , 1/8
Full size means that 1 foot=1 inch

(size is reduced twelve times)

Half size means that 1 foot= inch

(size is reduced twenty four times)

Quarter size means that 1 foot= inch

(size is reduced forty eight times)

 LINES
Each line in a drawing has a definite meaning and

is drawn in a certain way.

There are three widths of lines;

thin, medium and thick

All lines of the same type should be uniform

throughout the drawing.

 TYPES OF LINES
Visible Line
Hidden Line
Section Lines
Center Line
Dimension Line
Extension Line
Cutting Plane Line
Short Break line
Long Break Line
Leader Line
Phantom Line
Visible Line:-
It is used to show the prominent edges of the
object. H grade pencil is used for this purpose.

Hidden Line:-
These are medium lines of short dashes to show
hidden detail of an object. H or 2H grade pencil is
used for this purpose
Section Lines:-
These are thin lines drawn at 45 degree and 1/8 to
1/16 inch apart from one another. These are used to
show the cutting surface of an object.3H grade
pencil is used to draw this line.

Center Line:-
These are thin lines of long and short length used to
show the center of circles and arcs. It starts and
ends with long dashes. 3H grade pencil is used to
draw this line.
Dimension Line:-
These are thin continuous line broken in the center
with arrowheads at the respective ends touching
the extension line. 3H or 4H grade pencil is used for
this purpose.

Extension Line:-
Extension lines are perpendicular to dimension line
touching the arrowheads. These are thin lines and
drawn with 3H or 4H grade pencil.
Cutting Plane Line:-
These are thick chain lines. This line is series of one
long and two small dashes. This line is used to
indicate where section must be removed to show
the hidden details. It is drawn with H grade pencil.

Short Break line:-

These are thick, free hand irregular line used when
the length of object is greater than its width and we
have to minimize the length of an object. H grade
pencil is used to draw this line.
 Long Break Line:-
These are used for breaking wide as well as long object.
This is thin line drawn with 2H or 3H grade pencil.
Phantom Line:-
This type of line is used to show the alternate position
of moving parts. It is consist of two small and one long
dash. These are thin lines drawn with 2H or 3H grade
pencil.
Leader Line:-
This is thin continuous line leading from a dimension
value or an explanatory note to the feature of the
drawing. It has an arrowhead at its one end touching
the feature in which the attention is directed. It is
drawn with 2H grade pencil.
 LETTERING
Lettering is very important in engineering

graphics to gives information about size and

surface. Free hand lettering should be done in the

drawing whenever needed because it takes less

time.
 Types of Lettering
There are so many types and styles of lettering

but following types are mostly used in engineering

graphics.

Single Stroke Lettering

Double Stroke Lettering

 Single Stroke
Lettering:-
Single stroke letters are generally used in all the

technical drawings. The term single stroke does not

mean that entire letter is made without lifting the pencil

or pen, but the width of the stroke of the pencil is the

width of the stem of the letter. Single stroke lettering is

done either vertical or inclined style, for both capital

and lower case letters.

 Double Stroke or Gothic
Lettering:-
These are written with two strokes and both

lines are parallel to each other. They are drawn in

skeleton form, and then filled in with inking pen.

 Principles of Lettering
Following principles of lettering should be
adopted;

Only one style should be used throughout a

drawing.

Uniformity is essential in height, proportion,

inclination, strength of line, spacing of letters and
spacing of words ensure a pleasing appearance.
Move pencil freely but with great care,
lettering should be done with H grade pencil.

Lettering should not be underlined except

when special emphasis is required.

An inclination of approximately 75 degree to

the horizontal is recommended.
 Stability of Letters
If the upper portion of certain letters and numerals

are equal in width to the lower portion, the

characters appear top-heavy. To correct this, the

upper portion is reduced in size.

C G B E K X Z 3 8 5 2
 If the central horizontal stroke of the letter B ,E,

F, H are placed at exact mid height, they will be

appeared to be below center. To overcome this

problem these strokes should be drawn slightly

above the center.

B E
 Guide Lines for Capitals
Capital letters have two horizontal guide lines.
The upper most line is called Capline and the lower
most line is called Base line. On drawings, capital
letters are made in different height, with the space
between lines of lettering from three-fifth to full
height of the letters. Guide lines for inclined capital
letters are same as for vertical capital lettering
 Guide Lines for Lower Case
letters
Lower case letters have four horizontal guide

lines, called the capline, waist line, base line and

drop line. Stroke of letters that extend up to the

capline are called Ascenders, and those that

extend down to the drop line called Descenders.

 There are only five descenders g, j, p, q, y
so, the drop line is little needed and is usually
omitted. The height of letters may vary as
required. It is necessary to set off equal spaces.

e.g. to set off guide line for letters 3/16 inch high
it is necessary to set off equal space of each 1/16
inch.
 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
Many of the constructions used in technical

drawing are based upon plane geometry. Students

must familiar with the knowledge of elementary

geometry, without clear understanding of methods

and principles of plane and solid geometry; it will

not be possible to achieve desired knowledge in

drawing.
Plane: A plane is a flat surface having length and

breadth but no thickness e.g. cicle, triangle,

polygon etc.

Plane Geometry: It is a science of drawing figures

on plane surface which have no thickness are called

two dimensional figures e.g. construction of circle,
triangle etc
Point: A point is represented by the intersection of

two lines. Never represent a point by a simple dot

on the paper.

Straight Line: The shortest distance between two

points.
 Angle:

An angle is formed by two intersecting lines;

a common symbol for angle is .There

are 360 degrees in a full circle.

 Different kinds of angles are given
here
Right Angle: When a vertical line joins the

horizontal line in such a way that they form 90

degree angle is called right angle.
Acute angle: It is an angle less than 90 degree.

Obtuse Angle: The angle which is more than 90

degree.
Reflex Angle: It is an angle more than 180 degree

and less than 360 degree is called Reflex Angle.

Straight Angle: The angle of 180 degree is called
straight angle.

Complementary Angles: Two angles are

complementary if their total is 90 degree.

Supplementary Angles: Two angles are

supplementary if their total is 180 degree.

TRIANGLES
A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three

straight sides and sum of the interior angles is

always 180 degree. They have six elements three

lines and three angles. Any side may be considered

as base.
 Triangles by considering the sides

Equivalent Triangle: The triangle having three

equal sides.

Isosceles Triangle: The triangle having two equal

sides.

Scalene Triangle: The triangle having three

unequal sides.
 Triangles by considering the angles

Acute Angle Triangle: The triangle having three

acute angles.

Obtuse Angle Triangle: The triangle having one

obtuse angle.

Right Angle Triangle: The triangle having one

right angle.
 CIRCLE

A circle is a closed curve all points of which are

the same distance from the center.

Following are the terms used in circle.

Circumference: The distance around the circle.

Diameter: Any straight line passing through the

center of circle and touching the circumference at
any two points.

Radius: Any straight line started from the center of

a circle and touching the circumference at any
point. It is half of the diameter.
Chord: It is a straight line joining any two points on
the circumference.

Tangent: It is a straight line touching the

circumference at one point.

Segment: It is bounded by a chord and the part of

circumference.
Sector: It is bounded by two radius lines.

Concentric Circle: Two or more than two circles

having common center but radii are different.

Eccentric Circle: Two or more than two circles

which are bounded by one another but are drawn
from different centers.
 Inscribed Figures

In Inscribed figures the sides of the figures are

chords of the circle. Only the corners of figure

are touching the circumference of the circle.

 Circumscribed
Figures

In the circumscribed figure, the sides of figure

are

tangents to the circle.

 Polygon
A polygon is any plane figure bounded by straight

lines. If the

polygon has equal angles and equal sides it is

called regular

polygon.
 Polygons are named according to the number of
sides, as follows
Triangle =3 sides
Square =4 sides
Pentagon =5 sides
Hexagon =6 sides
Heptagon =7 sides
Octagon =8 sides
Nonagon =9 sides
 DIMENSIONING
To give all the measurements and information describing

the size and location of the object in the drawing is called

dimensioning.
A drawing of an object is prepared to define its shape and

specify its size. The dimensions given on the drawing may

not be necessarily those, which are used in making the
drawing but they should be those which are required for
manufacturing the job. The correct dimensioning requires a
systematic way in which the dimensions are written on the
drawing.
 Dimension Line and Extension Line

Dimension lines are thin lines broken in the center

and terminated with arrowheads at respective ends
touching the extension lines. Extension lines are
drawn perpendicular to the dimension line and at
1/8 inch gap from the view.
 Leaders and Arrowheads
Leaders: A leader is thin continuous line leading from

dimension value or an explanatory note to the feature of

the drawing to which it applies. It has an arrowhead at its
one end touching the feature in which the attention is
directed.

Arrowheads: Arrowheads should be uniform in size and

style throughout the drawing. Arrowheads should be drawn

free hand and the length and width should be in a ratio of
3:1.
 Types of Dimensions
Size Dimension: It deals with the size of the

object e.g. a cone of 3 inch base and 6 inch height

is dimensioned.

Location Dimension: These dimensions show the

relative positions of different shapes

 Some Important Points
Larger dimensions should be placed outside the
smaller dimensions.

Dimensions are placed at the center of dimension

lines.

The dimension line, which is nearest the outline,

should be 3/8 inch from it.

Angular dimensions should be expressed in degrees.

Center line should not be used as dimension line.