Anatomy

and
Physiology
Endocrine Sytsem
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
Hypothalamus

Pituitary Gland

Endocrine gland

Increased Hormones
ENDOCRINE GLANDS

 PITUITARY
 ADRENALS
 THYROID
 PARATHYROID
 PANCREAS
 OVARIES
 TESTES
Location of Major Endrocrine Organs

Figure 9.3
Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
9.14
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The Hypothalamus
 This part of the
DIENCEPHALON is located
below the thalamus and is
connected to the pituitary
gland by a stalk
The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System:
Hypothalamus
Secretes RELEASING
HORMONES for the
pituitary gland
 Releasing hormones= hypothalamus
The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System:
Hypothalamus
 Secretes OXYTOCIN &
Anti-Diuretic Hormone or
VASOPRESSIN that is
stored in the Posterior
pituitary gland
Pituitary gland

 Master gland
 Located at the base of the brain
 Influenced by the hypothalamus
 Directly affects the function of other
endocrine glands
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The Pituitary Gland
The optic chiasm
passes over this
structure
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The Pituitary Gland
 Isdivided into two
parts- the anterior or
adenohypophysis and
the posterior or the
neurohypophysis
 The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System: Anterior
Pituitary
Secretes the following:
 1. Growth hormone
 2. Prolactin
 3. Gonadotrophins- LH and FSH
 4. Stimulating hormones and trophic
hormones
– ACTH
– TSH
– MSH
 The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System: Posterior
Pituitary
Stores and releases
 1. OXYTOCIN

 2. ADH/Vasopressin
The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System:
Thyroid
 Produces the thyroid
hormones by the thyroid
follicles:
1. Tri-iodothyronine or T3
2. Tetra-iodothyronine or
thyroxine or T4
The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System:
Thyroid

 TheParafollicular cells
secrete CALCITONIN
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The PARAthyroid glands
 Located at the back of the
thyroid glands
 Four in number
 The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System:
Parathyroid gland
 Secretes PARATHYROID
hormone (PTH) that controls
calcium and phosphorus
levels
 PTH is stimulated by a
DECREASED Calcium level
The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System:
Parathyroids
Parathyroid Hormone Calcitonin is
is released in stimulated by
HYPOCALCEMIA HYPERCALCEMIA

Parathyroid hormone Calcitonin is inhibited

is NOT secreted in by HYPOCALCEMIA
HYPERCALCEMIA
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The Adrenal Glands
 Located above the kidneys

 Composed of two parts- the

outer Adrenal Cortex and
the inner Adrenal medulla
ADRENAL CORTEX

Secretes three types of

STEROID hormones:
 1. Glucocorticoids- like
Cortisol, cortisone and
corticosterone
The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System: Adrenal
Cortex
 2. Mineralocorticoids- like
Aldosterone
 3. Sex hormones- like
estrogen and testosterone
 The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System: Adrenal
Medulla
 Essentially a part of the
SYMPATHETIC autonomic
system
 Secretes Adrenergic Hormones:

 1. Epinephrine

 2. Nor-epinephrine
 PANCREAS
Insulin
Glucagon
 TESTES AND OVARIES
Testosterone
Progesterone
Estrogen
 THYMUS
Thymosin
 PINEAL GLAND
Melatonin
Respiratory System
Respiratory Anatomy &
Physiology
 The respiratory system consists of two
main parts- the upper and the lower
tracts
The Respiratory Process
 Respiration is the process by which oxygen enters
the body and is utilized by the cells for their
metabolic processes. It essentially involves five
interdependent steps.
 Ventilation refers to the entry of air containing
oxygen and other gases into the lungs.
 Ventilation is followed by the diffusion of gases
from and into the alveoli and alveolar sacs. Oxygen
from the alveoli passes through the respiratory
membrane and enter the perialveolar capillaries,
while carbon dioxide from the capillaries diffuses
through the respiratory membrane to leave the lungs
by means of exhalation.
The Respiratory Process
 Circulation makes it possible for oxygen to reach
the distant tissues, and for carbon dioxide to travel
from the tissues back into the lungs.
 The fourth component of the respiratory process
involves another diffusion of gases, this time
involving the entry of oxygen into target tissues, and
the entry of carbon dioxide into the blood stream for
delivery back into the lungs.
 Cell metabolism and respiration are the final
steps of the respiratory process wherein oxygen is
utilized by the cells, and carbon dioxide, along with
other waste products, is produced.
Respiratory Anatomy &
Physiology
 The UPPER respiratory system consists
of:
 1. nose
 2. mouth
 3. pharynx
 4. larynx
Respiratory Anatomy &
Physiology
 The LOWER respiratory system
consists of:
 1. Trachea
 2. Bronchus
 3. Bronchioles
 4. Respiratory unit
Upper respiratory tract
The Nose

 contains nasal bones and cartilages

and numerous hairs called vibrissae
 There are numerous superficial blood
vessels in the nasal mucosa
The Nose

 The functions of the nose are:

 1. To filter the air
 2. To humidify the air
 3. To aid in phonation
 4. Olfaction
The pharynx

 The pharynx is a musculo-

membranous tube that is composed of
three parts
 1. Nasopharynx
 2. Oropharynx
 3. Laryngopharynx
The pharynx

 The pharynx functions :

 1. As passageway for both air and
foods (in the oropharynx)
 2. To protect the lower airway
 Tonsils

 pair of prominent
masses of lymphoid
tissue that are located
opposite each other in
the throat
The larynx

 Also called the voice box

 Made of cartilage and membranes and
connects the pharynx to the trachea
The larynx

 Functions of the larynx:

 1. Vocalization
 2. Keeps the patency of the upper
airway
 3. Protects the lower airway
The paranasal sinuses

 These are four paired bony cavities

that are lined with nasal mucosa and
ciliated pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
 Named after their location- frontal,
ethmoidal, sphenoidal and maxillary
The paranasal sinuses

 The function of the sinuses:

Resonating chambers in speech
 The lower respiratory
system
 1. Trachea
 2. Main bronchus
 3. Bronchial tree
 4. Lungs- 3R/ 2L
 The trachea to the terminal bronchioles is
called the conducting airway
 The respiratory bronchioles to the alveoli is
called the respiratory acinus
The trachea

 A cartilaginous tube measures 10-12

centimeters
 Composed of about 20 C-shaped
cartilages, incomplete posteriorly
The trachea

 The function of the trachea is to

conduct air towards the lungs
 The mucosa is lined up with mucus
and cilia to trap particles and carry
them towards the upper airway
 Lobes of the Lungs

 (R) lung = 3 lobes

- upper, middle,
lower
fissures: horizontal,
oblique
 (L) lung = 2 lobes

- upper with lingula,

lower
fissure: oblique
The Bronchus

 The right and left primary bronchi

begin at the carina
 The function is for air passage
The primary bronchus
 RIGHT BRONCHUS  LEFT BRONCHUS

 Wider  Narrower
 Shorter  Longer
 More Vertical  More horizontal
The bronchioles

 The primary bronchus further divides

into secondary, then tertiary then into
bronchioles
 The terminal bronchiole is the last part
of the conducting airway
The respiratory Acinus

 The respiratory acinus is the chief

respiratory unit
 It consists of
 1. Respiratory bronchiole
 2. Alveolar duct
 3. alveolar sac
The respiratory Acinus

 The function of the respiratory acinus

is gas exchange through the
respiratory membrane
The respiratory Acinus

 The respiratory membrane is

composed of two epithelial cells
 1.The type 1 pneumocyte- most
abundant- where gas exchange occurs
 2. The type 2 pneumocyte- secretes
lung surfactant
The respiratory Acinus

 A type III pneumocyte is just the

macrophage that ingests foreign
material and acts as an important
defense mechanism
Accessory Structures

The PLEURA
 Epithelial serous membrane lining the lung
parenchyma
 Composed of two parts- the visceral and
parietal pleurae
 Pleural space
Accessory Structures

The Thoracic cavity

 The chest wall composed of the
sternum and the rib cage
 The cavity is separated by the
diaphragm, the most important
respiratory muscle
 Pleural Cavities

Costodiaphragmatic
recesses
: Spaces in the
pleural cavities
below each lung,
superior to the
diaphragm.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF
THE Respiratory System
 Gas exchange through ventilation,
external respiration and cellular
respiration
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport
Accessory Structures

The Mediastinum
 The space between the lungs, which
includes the heart and pericardium,
the aorta and the vena cavae.
 Mechanics of Ventilation
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
respiratory muscles contract Respiratory muscles relax
(diaphragm,intercostal m.)

Decreased thoracic
increased thoracic diameter diameter

Decreased pressure Increased pressure

Air goes in
Air goes out
Mechanics of Breathing
Respiratory Rate (RR)
 Inspiration-
expiration cycle is
measured in cpm
(cycles per minute)
 Normal adult RR:
14-20cpm
 Children 20-30 cpm
 Infants 40-60 cpm
Pulmonary Volumes and
Capacities
 There are four pulmonary volumes: tidal volume,
inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve
volume, and residual volume.
 The tidal volume refers to the volume of air that
goes into and out of the lungs during normal
respiration (about 500 cc).
 The inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of
air that can be inspired forcefully after inspiration of
the normal tidal volume (about 3000 cc).
 The expiratory reserve volume is the additional
amount of air that can be expired forcefully (about
1100 cc).
Pulmonary Volumes and
Capacities
 The residual volume is the volume of air left in the
lungs after maximum expiration. This is also known
as “dead space” (about 1200 cc).
 The pulmonary capacities refer to the sum of two
or more pulmonary volumes.
 The vital capacity is the sum of the IRV, the TV
and the ERV. It is the maximum volume of air that a
person can expel from his respiratory tract after a
maximum inspiration (about 4600 cc).
VC = IRV + TV + ERV
Pulmonary Volumes and
Capacities
 The inspiratory capacity is the amount of
air that a person can inspire maximally after a
normal expiration (about 3500 cc).
IC = TV + IRV
 The functional residual capacity is the
amount of air remaining in the lungs at the
end of a normal expiration (about 2300 cc).
FRC = ERV + RV
 The total lung capacity is the sum of all the
lung volumes (about 5800 cc).
Pulmonary Volumes and
Capacities
MAXIMUM
INSPIRATION

IRV
IC

VC TOTAL
LUNG
TV CAPACITY

ERV
MAXIMUM
EXPIRATION
FRC

RV RV
 Regulation of Respiration
 RESPIRATORY  CAROTID AND AORTIC
CENTER in the CHEMORECEPTORS
BRAINSTEM. - help regulate breathing
- High [pCO2] or low
- activated by dec ph
[pO2] ---chemoreceptors
 CO2 + H20  H2CO3 ---medulla and pons to
inform the phrenic nerve
 Phrenic nerve stimulates
the diaphragm to
contract
 Breathing Patterns
 BIOTS:  CHEYNE-STOKES:
breathing common but usually
with irregularly abnormal periods of
alternating periods apnea lasting 10-60
of apnea and seconds followed by
hyperpnea gradual increase
 e.g.meningitis and then decrease
brain disorders that  e.g. frontal lobe and
cause  ICP diencephalic
dysfunction
 Breathing Patterns
 COGWHEEL  KUSSMAUL
– – deep, gasping
respiratory breathing
murmur, not
continuous but
 e.g. diabetic
broken into waves ketoacidosis and
 e.g. bronchitis coma
and possible TB
Circulatory System
 Heart
 complex muscular pump
 Size of a clenched fist
 Beats 60-100 per minute
 The heart pumps about
7200 liters/day.
 Layers of the wall

 Endocardium –
innermost layer
 Myocardium –
middle, thickest;
contracting layer
 Epicardium –
outer layer
 Pericardium
-encloses
epicardium
1. Visceral
2. Parietal
 Pericardial sac
 Anatomy of the heart

 4 chambers
 2 atria act as collecting
reservoirs.
 2 ventricles act as
pumps.
 4 valves for:
 Pumping action of
the heart.
 Maintaining
unidirectional blood
flow.
MUSCLES WITHIN THE CHAMBERS
 PAPILLARY
MUSCLES - found
within the
chamber walls
 Extend into
CHORDAE
TENDINAE
attached to valves
 Blood Vessels
1. Right coronary
artery
a. posterior
interventricular
b. marginal artery

- RA, RV, inferior portion of

the LV, the posterior
septal wall and AV (90%)
and SA node (55%)
2. Left coronary
artery
• anterior
interventricular
a. circumflex arteries -
LA and the post. LV
b. Left ant. descending
artery – ant. wall of
the LV, the anterior
septum and the Apex
of the left ventricle
3. cardiac veins -drain into the
coronary sinus w/c in turn drain
into right atrium
Peripheral vascular system
2 TYPES OF CONTROL
SYSTEMS OF THE
HEART:
1.Neural regulation – autonomic
nervous system
Sympathetic- accelerates & strengthen
heartbeat\
Parasympathetic- slows down
 Conduction system
Electrical Conduction
System/Nodal System
- network of nerve fibers
coordinate the
contraction and
relaxation of the cardiac
muscle tissue to obtain
an efficient, wave-like
pumping action of the
heart.
CARDIAC CYCLE

 sequence of events that occur

when the heart beats
 Systole- diastole cycle
BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART

 Left LUNGS LA mitral

valve opens LV mitral
valve closes LV muscles
contract AV opens
aorta distribution

 Right BODY RA

tricuspid valve opens RV
tricuspid valve closes RV
muscles contract
pulmonary valves open
lungs
 HEART SOUNDS
 Aortic valve: second
ICS(intercostal space) R
PSL(parasternal line)
 Pulmonic valve: second
ICS L PSL
 Tricuspid valve: fourth
ICS L PSL
 Mitral valve: fifth ICS L
MCL(midclavicular line)
The Cardiovascular
System
The Heart sounds
 1. S1- due to closure of the AV valves

 2. S2- due to the closure of the semi-

lunar valves
 3. S3- due to increased ventricular
filling
 4. S4- due to forceful atrial contraction
Cardiac Output, Sroke
Volume
and Heat Rate
 STROKE VOLUME – amount of blood
ejected per heartbeat
 HEART RATE – affected by ANS,
baroreceptor activity, cathecolamines,
thyroid hormone
 CARDIAC OUTPUT
- amount of blood pumped out by each
ventricle in 1 minute
- product of heart rate and stroke
volume
 STROKE VOLUME
1. Preload – degree of stretch at the end of diastole
 Inc volume inc stretch inc preload
greater contraction and inc stroke volume

2. Afterload – amount of resistance to ejection of

blood from ventricle
 Also called systemic vascular resistance
 Inverse relationship with stroke volume

3. Contraction- force generated by contracting

myocardium
ECG INTERPRETATION
 P wave- arterial depolarization
- indicate SA node function
- normal: 0.04-0.11
 PR wave interval- indicate AV node
conduction
- normal: 0.12-0.20
 QRS complex- ventricular depolarization
- normal: 0.06-0.10
 ECG INTERPRETATION

 ST segment- indicates time between

complete depolarization and
repolarization of ventricle
 T waves- venticular repolarization
The vascular System
 arteries - vessels that carry
blood away from the heart to
the periphery
 veins -vessels that carry blood
to the heart
 capillaries are lined with
squamos cells, they connect
the veins and arteries
The vascular System

 The lymphatic system collects

the extravasated fluid from
the tissues and returns it to
the blood
Blood Vessels: The Vascular
System

 Taking blood to the tissues and back

 Arteries
 Arterioles
 Capillaries
 Venules
 Veins

Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
11.23
BLOOD VESSEL: ANATOMY
Three layers (tunics)
Tunic intima
Endothelium
Tunic media
Smooth muscle
Controlled by sympathetic nervous
system
Tunic externa
Mostly fibrous connective tissue
Pulse

 Pulse –
pressure wave
of blood
 Monitored at
“pressure
points” where
pulse is easily
palpated
Figure 11.16
Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
11.35
Blood components

Formed elements:
 RBC

 WBC

 Platelets

Unformed
 plasma
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

 The main function is to carry oxygen

 Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
 Biconcave disks
 Essentially bags of hemoglobin
 Anucleate (no nucleus)
 Contain very few organelles
 Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1
Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
10.6
NV:
RBC:4.0-5.5 (F)
4.5-6.2 (M)

hgb:12-14 (F)
14-16 (M)

Hct- 35-45 (F) 42-52

(M)
Hemoglobin

 Iron-containing protein
 Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
 Each hemoglobin molecule has four
oxygen binding sites
 Each erythrocyte has 250 million
hemoglobin molecules

Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
10.7
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
 Crucial in the body’s defense against
disease
 These are complete cells, with a
nucleus and organelles
 Able to move into and out of blood
vessels (diapedesis)
 Can move by ameboid motion
 Can respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues
Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
10.8
WBC
 NV- 5,000-10,000
 1.   granular leukocytes
a.   neutrophil – 60-70%
- primary line of cellular defense
against bacterial invasion

b.  eosinophil – 2-5 %
- inc in allergic reaction

c.  basophil – 0-1 %

-supplement function of mast cells
2. agranular leukocytes
a.  lymphocytes: B and T lymphocytes 20-
30%
- respond to invasion of the body by
foreign substances and organism, newer
phagocytes

b. monocyte – 3-8%
c. Platelets/Thrombocytes
-   150,000 – 450,000 per cu mm blood

-  Thromboxane A2 – promotes platelet

plug formation

-  Prostacyclin – limits formation of

platelet plug
Hematopoiesis

 Occurs in bone marrow

 All blood cells are derived from a
common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
 Hemocytoblast differentiation
 Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
 Myeloid stem cell produces other formed
elements

Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
10.14
Fate of Erythrocytes

 Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize

proteins
 Wear out in 100 to 120 days
 When worn out, are eliminated by
phagocytes in the spleen or liver
 Lost cells are replaced by division of
hemocytoblasts
Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
10.15
Control of Erythrocyte Production

 Rate is controlled by a hormone

(erythropoietin)
 Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as
a response to reduced oxygen levels in
the blood
 Homeostasis is maintained by negative
feedback from blood oxygen levels

Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
10.16
Developmental Aspects of Blood

 Sites of blood cell formation

 The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of
blood cell formation
 Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by
the seventh month

Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
10.31
RED CELL INDICES
 Mean corpuscular volume: hematocrit/RBC
– 82 to 92 cubic microns; macrocytosis or
microcytosis; pernicious anemia
 Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH):
hemoglobin/RBC
– 27 to 31 picograms
 Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration
(MCHC): hemoglobin/hematocrit
– 32 to 36 g/dL; hyperchromia or
hypochromia
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
AND IMMUNITY
The Lymphatic System
 The lymphatic system consists of lymph,
lymph vessels, lymphocytes, lymph nodes,
tonsils, the spleen and the thymus gland.
 It maintains tissue fluid balance in tissues,
absorbs fats from the small intestine, and
defends against foreign substances.
The Lymph Vessels
 Lymph vessels carry lymph away from
tissues. Valves in the vessels ensure the one-
way flow of lymph.
 Skeletal muscle contraction, contraction of
lymph vessel smooth muscle, and thoracic
pressure changes move the lymph through
the vessels.
 The thoracic duct and the right lymphatic
duct, empty lymph into the blood.
The Lymph Organs
 Lymphatic tissue produces lymphocytes when exposed
to foreign substances, and it filters lymph and blood.
 The tonsils protect the openings between the nasal and
oral cavities and the pharynx.
 Lymph nodes, located along lymph vessels, filter
lymph.
 The white pulp of the spleen responds to foreign
substances in the blood, whereas the red pulp
phagocytizes foreign substances and worn out
erythrocytes. The spleen also functions as reservoir for
blood.
 The thymus processes lymphocytes that move to other
lymphatic tissue to respond to foreign substances.
Non-Specific Immunity
 MECHANICAL MECHANISMS
Skin and mucous membranes
Tears, saliva and urine
 CHEMICAL
Lysozyme in tears
Complement in plasma
Interferon
Non-Specific Immunity
 CELLULAR
Chemotaxis
Neutrophils
Macrophages
Basophils and mast cells
Eosinophils
 INFLAMMATORY RESPONSES
Specific Immunity
 ANTIGENS are molecules that stimulate
specific immunity.
 B cells are responsible for humoral
immunity.
 T cells are responsible for cell-mediated
immunity.
Antibody-Mediated
Immunity
 ANTIBODIES are proteins. It has a
variable region and a constant region.
 The variable region combines with antigens
and is responsible for antibody specificity.
 The constant region activates complement or
attaches the antibody to cells.
 The five classes of antibodies are IgG, IgM,
IgA, IgE, and IgD.
Antibody-Mediated
Immunity
 Antibodies directly inactivate antigens or cause
them to clump together. They indirectly destroy
antigen by promoting phagocytosis and
inflammation.
 The primary response results from the first
exposure to an antigen. B cells form plasma cells,
which produce antibodies, and memory cells.
 The secondary (memory) response results from
exposure to an antigen after a primary response.
Memory cells quickly form plasma cells and memory
cells.
Cell-Mediated Immunity
 Exposure to an antigen activates cytotoxic T
cells and produces memory cells.
 Cytotoxic T cells lyse virus-infected cells,
tumor cells, and tissue transplants. Cytotoxic
T cells produce lymphokines which promote
inflammation and phagocytosis.
Acquired Immunity
 ACTIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY
Exposure to an infectious agent
 ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
Vaccination
 PASSIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY
Transplacental transfer of antibodies
 PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
Immunization
Nervous system and
special senses
 PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS:
1. Central Nervous System
(CNS)
a. brain & the spinal cord
 control mechanism for the
entire organism
2. Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
a. 12 cranial nerves (CN)
b. 31 spinal nerves
c. autonomic nerves
a. sympathetic
b. parasympathetic
 The Neuron
 functional unit
 dendrites – receive neural msgs
& transmit towards cell body
 axon – transmits neural msgs
away from cell body
 cell body – contains nucleus,
mitochondria, & other organelles
 myelin & cellular sheath
produced by Schwann cells
 nodes of Ranvier
 TYPES OF NEURONS
 Sensory neurons typically have a long dendrite
and short axon, carry messages from
sensory receptors  central nervous system.

 Motor neurons have a long axon and short

dendrites, transmit messages from
central nervous system muscles (or to glands).

 Interneurons are found only in the central

nervous system where they connect neuron to
neuron.
Nerves & Ganglia
 nerve – a large bundle
of axons wrapped in
CT
 tracts or pathways –
bundle of axons within
the CNS
 ganglia – aggregation
of nerve cell bodies
w/in the PNS
 nuclei – collection of
cell bodies w/in the
CNS
 Reflex Action
 simplest example of a neural response
predictable, automatic response to
stimuli
 4 processes:

-reception of the stimuli,

- transmission of information,
-integration (interpretation & determination
of appropriate response), &
- actual response
 BRAIN
average human brain
weighs about 3
pounds (1300-1400
g).
 At birth, the human
brain weighs less than
a pound (0.78-0.88
pounds or 350-400
g).
 The human brain
reaches its full size at
about 6 years of age.
 BRAIN
 2% of the body's weight, it
uses 20% of the oxygen
supply
 gets 20% of the blood flow.
 If brain cells do not get
oxygen for 3 to 5 minutes,
they begin to die.
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
surrounds the brain.
Anatomy and Physiology

I. THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

 a) concept of the dominant and non
dominant hemisphere.
 Left Right
 Dominant Non-dominant
 Language Spatial concepts
Calculation Recognition of faces
 Anatomy and Physiology
Frontal Parietal Occipital Temporal

Learning Language Visual Audition &

Intellect communication Imaging & Memory
Judgment Speech processing
Values Calculation
Behavior & Construction
Emotion Recognition
Anatomy and Physiology

II. Basal Ganglia

 Cell bodies in white matter

 Smooth voluntary movement

III. Thalamus
 Relays sensory impulses to the cortex

 Provides a pain gate

Anatomy and Physiology
IV. Hypothalamus
 Regulates autonomic responses (stress,
sleep, appetite, body temp, emotions)
 Responsible for production of hormones
secreted by the pituitary
V. Brainstem
V.1. midbrain
 Motor coordination
 Visual reflex and auditory relay center
Anatomy and Physiology

V.2. Pons
 Regulates breathing- resp. center

V.3. Medulla oblongata

 Contains efferent/afferent fibers

 Cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and

vasomotor center( bld. vessel
diameter)
Anatomy and Physiology

VI. Cerebellum
 Coordinates sm muscle mov’t

 coordinates, posture, equilibrium and

muscle tone
VII. Spinal cord
 Starts from C1-L2

 Carries sensory and motor impulses

 Ave. length 45 cms. or 17 inches

Spinal Cord
 Spinal nerves
 31 pairs
 Posterior roots- Efferent(motor)
 Anterior roots- Afferent(sensory)
HYDROCEPHALUS - congenital anomaly inc
amount of CSF in ventricles.
Peripheral Nervous
System
 made up of the sense organs, the
sensory neurons, & the nerves that
link the CNS with the effectors
 2 systems:
1. somatic system – responsible for body
balance in relation to outside world
2. autonomic system – responsible for
internal body balance
Cranial Nerves
 12 pairs emerge from
the brain
 transmit information
from sense receptors
to the brain
 I-olfactory- sensory for smell
 II- optic-sensory for vision
 III-oculomotor- motor to
SR,IR,MR &IO; to internal eye ms
which controls lens shape and
pupil size
 IV- motor to SO
 VI- motor to LR
 V- Trigeminal-sensory to skin of
face, motor to ms of chewing
 VII-Facial- motor to mS of facial
expression, senory to taste(ant. Tongue)
 VIII- sensory to hearing and balance
 IX- glossopharyngeal- motor to pharynx
& saliva production, sensory to
tase( post. Tongue)
 X- Vagus- sensory & motor to pharynx,
larynx, abdominal and thoracic viscera
 XI- Accessory- motor to
sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
 XII-Hypoglossal-motor and sensory to
tongue
Comparison of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Actions on Selected Effectors

Sympathetic Action Parasympathetic Action

Effector
Heart Increases rate and strength of Decreases rate; no direct effect on
contraction strength of contraction
Bronchial tubes Dilates Constricts
Iris of eye Dilates (pupil becomes larger) Constricts (pupil becomes smaller)
Sex organs Constricts blood vessels; ejaculation Dilates blood vessels; erection
Blood vessels Generally constricts No innervation for many
Sweat glands Stimulates No innervation
Intestine Inhibits motility Stimulates motility and secretion
Liver Stimulates glycogen breakdown No effect
metabolism
Adipose tissue Stimulates free fatty acid release No effect
from fat cells
Adrenal medulla Stimulates secretion of epinephrine No effect
and norepinephrine
Salivary glands Stimulates thick, viscous secretion Stimulates profuse, water
secretion
senses
External
Anatomy of
the Eye
EYE structures
1. Pupil
2. Conjunctiva 10. vitreous
3. Cornea chamber
4. Sclera 11. vitreous humor
5. Choroid 12. Retina
6. Iris
13. rods & cones
7. Ciliary body
8. Lens 14. optic nerve
9. aqueous chamber 15. optic disc
– aqueous humor 16. macula
17. fovea centralis
 CORNEA
the transparent,
avascular layer that
covers the iris & the
pupil at the front of the
eye
frequently referred to as
the window of the eye
function: to bend, or
refract the rays of the
light
 Sclera

 the white of the eye

 tough, fibrous,
connective tissue
that extends from
the cornea on the
anterior surface of
the eyeball to the
optic nerve
 Choroid
 a layer inside the
sclera made of black
pigment cells that
absorb light rays so
that they are not
reflected back
 rich in blood vessels
that supply nutrients
to the eye
Iris
 the colored portion of
the eye that surrounds
the pupil
 smooth ms constrict
the pupil in bright light
& vice-versa
 color is determined by
the amount of pigment
present (blue has the
least, brown has the
most)
 Ciliary Body And Lens
 located on each side of
the lens, contains ms
that can adjust the shape
& thickness of the lens
 lens is a clear, crystalline
body that may be
thinned or flattened for
distant vision &
thickened for close vision
 refractive power of the
lens is called
accommodation
 Anterior & Vitreous
Chamber
 the lens lies at the rear of
the anterior chamber
filled with a fluid called
aqueous humor that
maintains shape &
nourishes the structures
within
 behind the lens is the
vitreous chamber that is
filled with a soft, jelly-like
material, the vitreous
humor
Retina
 the thin, delicate, and sensitive nerve layer
of the eye
 contains specialized sensory cells, the rods
& cones
– rods: 120M, for vision in dim light or darkness &
peripheral vision
– cones: 6.5M, for vision in bright light, color
vision, & central vision
 cones are most concentrated in the fovea
centralis and is the region of sharpest vision
 Optic Nerve & Disc
 light energy, when
focused on the retina,
causes a chemical
change in the rods &
cones  nerve
impulses travel to the
brain via optic nerve
 region where optic
nerve meets the
retina is called optic
disc ( also known as
blind spot due to
absence of rods &
cones)
Extraocular muscles of the Eye
Eye
Ears
 Eustachian Tube
 connects the middle
ear & the external
environment through
the throat
 equalizes the pressure
on the two sides of the
eardrum
 susceptible to bacterial
infection  middle ear
infection
Nose
Nose
 TASTE
 The sense of taste is perceived through the taste
buds on the tongue and in various parts of the
mouth.
 average of 10,000 taste buds in the normal adult
mouth. As an individual gets older the number of
taste buds gradually decreases.
 The taste buds are able to discriminate
among four primary tastes: sweet, sour, salty,
and bitter.
 Both the facial (CN VII) and the
glossopharyngeal (CN IX) nerves transmit the
sensory input to the brain.