2 Ketersediaan Air

Water Use and Management
Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Outline:
Water Availability and Use
Freshwater Shortages
Water Management and Conservation
Privatization of water
Water wars

WATER RESOURCES
Water, liquid and solid, covers more than
70% of worlds surface.
More than 370 billion billion gallons.

Hydrologic Cycle

Sources of water
Surface fresh water:

3% of liquid water,
which is 13% of fresh water,
which is 2.4% of water

Groundwater
Second largest reservoir of fresh water.

- Infiltration - Process of water percolating
through the soil and into fractures and

permeable rocks.
Zone of Saturation - Lower soil layers
where all spaces are filled with water.

Water Table - Top of Zone of Sat.

Groundwater

Groundwater
Aquifers - Porous layers of sand, gravel, or
rock lying below the water table.
Artesian - Pressurized aquifer intersects
the surface. (Water flows without pumping)

Recharge Zone - Area where water infiltrates
into an aquifer.
Recharge rate is often very slow.
- Presently, groundwater is being
removed faster than it can be

replenished in many areas.
Groundwater Aquifer

Water diversions from rivers
Yellow River (Huang He) Colorado River Delta

In northern China in U.S./Mexico

Diversion of rivers to the Aral Sea
Once the 4th largest inland

body of water in the world
A series of dams was built to
irrigate cotton.
Aral Sea reduced to about

25% of its 1960 volume,
quadrupled the salinity of the
lake and wiped out the fishery.
Pollutants became airborne as
dust, causing significant local
health problems.
The environmental damage

caused has been estimated at
$1.25 -$2.5 billion a year.

U.S. Water Policy
Through most of US history, water policies
have generally worked against conservation.
In well-watered eastern states, water
policy was based on riparian use rights.

In drier western regions where water is
often a limiting resource, water law is

based primarily on prior appropriation
rights.
- Fosters Use it or Lose it policies.

Ogallala
Aquifer
High-
capacity
well
withdrawals

Dried-up reservoir

Western U.S. water conflicts
Klamath Basin, Oregon
vs.
Commercial fishers, Farmers.
Sport fishers, Ranchers.
Tribes, Wise
Environmentalists Users
Bulk water transfers
River system diversions
(Canada-to-U.S.)
Water pipelines
(Canada/Great Lakes-to-Southwest)
Supertankers
(North America-to-Asia)
Canadian government
banned bulk transfers in 1999.
Groundwater replenishing

WATER AVAILABILITY AND USE
Renewable Water Supplies
Made up of surface runoff and infiltration
into accessible freshwater aquifers.
Readily accessible, renewable

supplies are 400,000 gal /person/year.

Drought Cycles
Every continent has regions of scarce rainfall
due to topographic effects or wind currents.
Water shortages have most severe effect in
semiarid zones where moisture availability

is the critical factor in plant and animal
distributions.

Types of Water Use
Withdrawal - Total amount of water taken
from a source.
Consumption - Fraction of withdrawn water

not returned to its source.

Types of Water Use
Worldwide, humans withdraw about 10% of
total annual renewable supply.
Many societies have always treated water

as an inexhaustible resource.

Quantities of Water Used
Human water use has been increasing about
twice as fast as population growth over the
past century.
Average amount of withdrawn worldwide is

about 170,544 gal/person/year.

Global Water Use Growth

Precipitation Patterns

Water use
Agriculture
Industry
Household/municipal

FRESHWATER SHORTAGES
Estimated 1.5 billion people lack access to
an adequate supply of drinking water.
Nearly 3 billion lack acceptable sanitation.
A country where consumption exceeds more

than 20% of available, renewable supply is
considered vulnerable to water stress.

A Precious Resource
45 countries have serious water stress, and
cannot meet the minimum essential water
requirements of their citizens.
More than two-thirds of worlds households

have to retrieve water from outside the
home.

Depleting Groundwater
Groundwater is the source of nearly 40% of
fresh water in the US.
On a local level, withdrawing water faster
than it can be replenished leads to a cone

of depression in the water table,
- On a broader scale, heavy pumping can
deplete an aquifer.
Mining non-renewable resource.


Withdrawing large amounts of groundwater
in a small area causes porous formations to
collapse, resulting in subsidence.
Sinkholes form when an underground

channel or cavern collapses.
Saltwater intrusion can occur along

coastlines
Saltwater Intrusion

Domestic Conservation
Estimates suggest many societies could
save as much as half of current domestic
water usage without great sacrifice or
serious change in lifestyle.

Typical US Household Water Use

WATER WARS
By
Majority majority
Minority By
minority
12% of population uses 85% of water

Price Mechanisms
Charging a higher
proportion of real
costs to users of
public water projects
has helped encourage
conservation.
Yet discriminates
against poor.

Global water Industry
Over $140 Billion a year
The World Water and Wastewater Utilities Market is

estimated at $142 billion US in 2000
(2000, $US)

Water multinationals

Public/private water in EU countries
100 100 100 100 100 100 99

100 98
95 96
90
90
82
80
70
63
60
50
Public
40 Private
30
25
20
12
10
0
Gr Ne Fin UK
De Fr Irel Ital Lu Po Sw
Be Sp ee the lan
nm an an y xe rtu ed
lgi Ge ain ce rla Au d
ark ce d mb gal en
um rm nd str
an ou ia
rg s
y

Public and private prices in France
average annual price (FF) for yearly consumption of 120m3, water & sanitation
Source: DGCCRF
2,500
Municipal/Rgies
2,100 2,100
2,000 1,908
1,993
2,050
Delegated/Private
1,848 1,841
1,784 1,803
1,716
1,621
1,489
1,500
1,000
500
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Water War in Bolivia
Cochabamba residents protesting

Bechtel privatization of
municipal water system, 1999
Private and public: subsidies to and from water
Private Public
Subsidies from
Loss
taxation
leaders Water
services
Financing Financing other

other MNC public services
operations

Alternative: Porto Alegre, Brazil
- Autonomous department
- Efficiency and public accountability
Participatory budgeting
- Decentralised democratic prioritising

Alternative: Debrecen, Hungary
Preferred public to private
Cheaper
Financial comparison

Safety of municipal
water supplies
Australia, 1998
(privatized system)
Wisconsin, 1993
Ontario, 2000
(govt had dropped
e-coli testing)
Bottled water costs more than oil

Bottled water quality in question

Bottled water growth
8
4 Billions of gallons
0
1970 1980 2000

Water
Privatization
Woodstock
Fewer Riot 1999
bubblers in
public
buildings?

Perrier/Nestle in the U.S.
Texas Florida

Perrier/Nestle in the Midwest
Wisconsin Michigan
Mecan Springs
(Waushara Co.) Protection of
1999-2000; rural supplies
Big Spring from high-
(Adams Co.), capacity wells
2000-2002 Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
New Geography of Conflict
Possible flashpoint for resource conflict

Water systems & aquifers
Jordan
Nile
Tigris Euphrates
Amu Darya
Indus
Mountain Aquifer (West Bank/Israel)

Middle East
Water Conflicts

Israeli-
Palestinian
Water
Conflict
Israel uses 82%

Of West Bank
groundwater;
charges Arabs 3x
Israels
boundary
with Egypt
and Gaza
(Palestine)

Dead Sea
Shrinkage

Tigris and Euphrates rivers
Turkey
Iraq

International cooperation on water use

Websites
Water resources
http://www.worldwater.org/
http://www.groundwater.com/
Privatization of water
www.canadians.org/blueplanet
http://www.citizen.org/cmep/Water/
Bottled water
www.saveamericaswater.com
www.savemiwater.org
www.waterissweet.org
www.saveourspringsinc.org
Water Wars (books)
www.southendpress.org/books/waterwars.shtml
www.mapcruzin.com/rev_resource_wars.htm

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Water Use and Management

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Water Availability and Use

Water Management and Conservation

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Surface fresh water:

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Second largest reservoir of fresh water.

through the soil and into fractures and

where all spaces are filled with water.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

the surface. (Water flows without pumping)

- Presently, groundwater is being

removed faster than it can be

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Yellow River (Huang He) Colorado River Delta

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Once the 4th largest inland

Aral Sea reduced to about

The environmental damage

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

policy was based on riparian use rights.

often a limiting resource, water law is

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

into accessible freshwater aquifers.

Readily accessible, renewable

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

semiarid zones where moisture availability

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Consumption - Fraction of withdrawn water

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Many societies have always treated water

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Average amount of withdrawn worldwide is

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

A country where consumption exceeds more

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

More than two-thirds of worlds households

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

than it can be replenished leads to a cone

Mining non-renewable resource.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Sinkholes form when an underground

Saltwater intrusion can occur along

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

12% of population uses 85% of water

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

The World Water and Wastewater Utilities Market is

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.