24/02/17

Crust
Ocea Land
rust
n Continen
c e a ni cC tal
O
Crust

Thinnest layer of the Earth that ranges from only 2

miles in some areas of the ocean floor to 75 miles
deep under mountains
Made up of large amounts of silicon and aluminum
Two types of crust: oceanic crust and continental
crust
Composed of plates on which the continents and
oceans rest
The Earths crust is like the skin of
an apple. Turn to an elbow partner
and discuss why this statement is
true. Next, come up with another
example.
 Upper Mantle

Convection
Middle
Currents
Mantle

Lower Mantle

Mantle
 Mantl
Upper Mantle

Convection Middle
Currents
e
Mantle
Lower Mantle

Solid but capable of flow (like hot asphalt or

fudge)
Thickest layer of the Earth (making up 70% of
the Earths mass)
The hot material (magma) in the mantle rises
to the top of the mantle, cools, then sinks,
reheats, and rises again. These convection
currents cause changes in the Earths surface
Oute
r
Core

Inne
r
Core

Core
 Outer
Core
Molten (liquid) metal that is about
4,700C (8,500F)
Located about 1,800 miles beneath the
crust and is about 1,400 miles thick
Composed of the melted metals nickel
and iron
Inner
Core
Solid sphere composed mostly of iron
It is believed to be as hot as 6,650C (12,000F)
Heat in the core is probably generated by the
radioactive decay of uranium and other elements
It is solid because of the pressure from the outer
core, mantle, and crust compressing it tremendously
The Earth is like a peach or a boiled egg.
Turn to a seat partner and discuss these
analogies. Come up with another analogy
and be prepared to share.
 Crust

Mantle
Lithosphere Crust and
Outer Core Upper Layer of the
Liquid Mantle

Layer of the Mantle

(asthenosphere) that
consists of hot rock of
tar-like consistency,
which slowly moves

Inner Core
Solid
 The lithosphere (crust and upper
mantle) is divided into separate plates
which move very slowly in response to
the convecting part of the mantle.
 What do these two
images tell us about
the layers of the Earth?
 Temperature
increases as depth
increases
Look at the information in the graph and
table below. Whats the relationship
between depth and density/pressure?
Density and Pressure
increase as depth
increases
Temperature,
Density and
Pressure
increases as
depth
increases
Add this statement to the
arrow going down on your
foldable.
 Which layer of the Earth has the
greatest temperature, pressure, and
density?

Core
 Summary
The earth is layered
with a lithosphere
(crust and uppermost
mantle), convecting
mantle, and
a dense metallic core.
Pressure,
temperature, and
density increases http://www.learner.org/interacti
as depth increases.ves/dynamicearth/structure.html
Mr. Lees Layers of
the Earth Rap
Layers of the Earth Review
Summarizin
g Strategy
Which of the following statements regarding what we know about
Earths interior is most accurate?
A) We have been able to drill into the earths core
B) Much about what we know about Earths mantle and core
comes from caves and mines
C) We know only about what is on the very surface of the earth, in
what is known as the crust

D) Energy waves allow us to see precisely what is deep inside the

Earth, like a tricorder or scanner from Star

Trek
 Earths Interior
What we know about Earths interior comes
from indirect avenues of investigation.
Earths diameter is approximately 12,756 km
(~ 7,500 miles).
-the deepest hole we have ever drilled
into the Earth is only 9.6 km (~5 mi).
so how do we know what its like?
Seismic waves! - natural and man-made
Earthquakes
seismic (energy) waves travel through the earth
some energy bounces off harder layers
called reflection
some energy travels through but gets bent, changing the
direction the wave is traveling
called refraction
some energy is absorbed as it encounters materials
called attenuation
Allow us to model what waves show up at given locations, and
when they arrive at given locations.
Shallow high frequency seismic waves allow us to see reflectors
and refractors at depth
Wave paths are influenced
by density, temperature,
and the angles at which
they strike boundaries as
they travel through and
around the Earth
Factors affect seismic waves
distance: farther = more attenuation
density: higher = faster
temperature: colder = faster
liquid vs solid
- solid = faster; p-waves and s-waves
- liquid = slower; no s-waves
angle of incidence- controls how much is
reflected and how much is absorbed
vertical arrangement of layers
- controls the resultant direction of travel
P-wave and S-wave shadow zones
- caused by transmissive and refractive properties of the waves
interacting with rock and liquid
Zones of material with distinctive characteristics make up each
layer in the Earth

Greatly simplified it
looks like
concentric spheres
Crust- the rigid outer shell of the Earth, composed of solid rock;
very thin- averages only 20 km thick (the crust is part of the
Lithosphere)
two kinds of crust
Oceanic- most abundant; consists of rocks formed from mafic
magma; very dense; very thin- 10 km thick
Continental- underlies continents; consists of rock formed from
felsic and intermediate magma; less dense than oceanic crust;
thick-30 to 85 km thick
What will happen as different kinds of crust interact with each
other?
A) Oceanic and Continental - ?
B) Old Oceanic and Younger Oceanic - ?
C) Continental and continental - ?
Model of Lithosphere and Aesthenosphere showing thickness of
Oceanic vs Continental crust

Oceanic crust
Continental crust

Uppermost mantle- Aesthenosphere

Mohorovicic Discontinuity
The Moho
Isopach contour lines = lines of equal thickness of the crust
The boundary zone between the crust and the mantle is called
the Mohorovicic Discontinuity or the Moho
- a zone of low velocity transmission of seismic waves
Mantle- the semi-solid (jello-like) material underlying the crust.
Extends down to about 3000 km depth
The uppermost part of the mantle is called the Aesthenosphere.
mostly molten material
The mantle is heated closer to the core
Heated mantle material rises upward very slowly
millions of years to move upward
As it near the earths surface, the mantle material liquefies
(due to pressure and temp relationships)
It also begins to cool, and slowly starts to sink back into the core
This creates a Convection current
Two highly schematic
models of
mantle convection
currents
3D models of mantle
convection currents
Heated rising
material

Cooled sinking
material
3D maps of the earths convection currents based on seismic
wave analysis-complicated looking!
Earths core
Divided into an inner and outer zone
Outer zone is liquid- doesnt transmit s-waves
Probably composed of Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe), some
heavier radioactive elements, along with some other
elements (S or N- Sulfur or Nitrogen)
Inner core is solid- based on speed of P-wave travel
composed of same materials as outer core
Important for generating Earths magnetic field
Earths magnetic field is created by the rotation of the outer fluid
core around the solid inner core
This creates an
electrical current
Generates an
electromagnetic
Field.
Similar to a
bar magnet with
a positive and
negative end
Earths magnetic field fluctuates over time due to the unsteady
nature of the geodynamo that is the the outer and inner core

QuickTime and a
YUV420 codec decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Earths magnetic field interacts with solar particles, forcing them to
the north or south pole, creating the Aurora Borealis
Earths magnetic field plays a vital role in the
development of Plate tectonics theory
Identification of a process that allows for
Sea Floor Spreading.
 Earths Layered Structure
Earths interior consists of layers
Layers are arranged according to density
Most dense material is at the center
core
Density decreases outward
Density layering includes the
hydrosphere (oceans) and atmosphere
Thickness and Composition of
Earths Layers
Earths Temperature Structure
How Do We Know?
Refraction of Seismic Waves
 Seismic Waves
Refraction change in speed and
direction when passing through a
material of different density.
 Other Evidence
Refraction of seismic waves
Density of the entire planet
Gravity (mass) of entire planet
Composition of meteorites
Existence of magnetic field
Earths Magnetic Dynamo
Earths Magnetic Field
 Was it always this way?
Accretion of the protoplanet
Homogeneous structure
Density differentiation
 Density Differentiation
Gravitational effects vary with density of
material
Materials must be free to move
Requires plastic flow or fluid flow
Requires heat
 Earth: The Unfinished Planet
Earth continues to lose heat
Volcanism brings material to Earths
surface
Other processes (subduction) return
more dense material to interior
Conclusion:
Earth is still under construction!
 Implications of an
Unfinished Planet
Volcanism
Earthquakes
Atmospheric and climate change
Effects on life
 Theory of Plate Tectonics
Earths lithosphere (crust +uppermost
mantle) is divided into plates
Plates move as a result of heat inside the
Earth
Plates interact to cause:
Earthquakes
Volcanos
Mountain systems
What makes the plates move?
Uneven distribution of heat in the upper
mantle (Asthenosphere) causes heat to
rise in some places
Differences in density cause colder, more
dense Lithosphere to sink back into the
asthenosphere
This Convection drives the motion of the
plates
 Interactions between Plates
cause:
Earthquakes
Volcanos
Formation of mountains
Formation of ocean basins
Increase amount of continental
lithosphere
 How do we find out?
How does interior differ from laboratory?
The significance of the differences depends
on the property to be probed
Equilibrium thermodynamic properties
Depend on Pressure, Temperature, Major
Element Composition.
So: Control them and measure desired
property in the laboratory! Or compute
theoretically
Non-equilibrium properties
Some also depend on minor element
composition, and history
These are more difficult to control and
replicate
 How do we find out?
Experiment 1.08

Production of high 1.07

q01

00.1
pressure and/or 1.06

Relative Volume, V/V 0

1.05
temperature 1.04
Bouhifd et al.

Probing of sample in 1.03

(1996)

situ 1.02

1.01 Forsterite
0 GPa
1.00
400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature (K)
 How do we find out?
Theory 35

Temperature Derivative of G, -dG/dT (MPa K )

-1
Solve Kohn-Sham 30
MgSiO3 Perovskite
2500 K

Equations (QM) Oganov et al.

25 (2002)

Approximations S=S0

Marton & Cohen

(2002)
S~
20
S~q
Wentzcovitch et al.
15 (2004)
S~q

10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Pressure (GPa)