Introduction to Learning

Theories
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"We think too much about effective methods

of teaching and not enough about effective
methods of learning."
John Carolus S. J.
 Teaching defined from multiple perspectives
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Socrates
I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.

Galileo
You cannot teach a man anything.
You can only help him to find it for himself.

Einstein
I never teach my pupils; I only attempt to provide the conditions in
which they can learn.

Eastern perspectives:
Theories and Models
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A scientific theory is an explanation or model based on

observation, experimentation and / or reasoning
(research). Theories have been tested or confirmed as
general principle(s) that help to explain or predict
things (facts, observations or events).
Theories are generally accepted as valid after surviving
repeated testing. A theory can never be established
beyond all doubts.
A model is a theoretical construct or a mental picture
that helps one understand something that cannot be
experienced or observed directly.
Definition: Theories are
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What is a theory?
A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over
time.

A theory explains and predicts behavior.

A theory can never be established beyond all doubt.

A theory may be modified.

Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly

tested but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long
time and later disproved.
 Definitions: Learning is
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1. a persisting change in human performance or

performance potential . . . (brought) about as a
result of the learners interaction with the
environment (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).
2. the relatively permanent change in a persons
knowledge or behavior due to experience (Mayer, 1982,
p. 1040).

3. an enduring change in behavior, or in the

capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of experience
(Shuell, 1986, p. 412).
 What is learning?

Saljo classified learning into five groups:

1. Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge.
Learning is acquiring information or knowing a lot
2. Learning as memorising. Learning is storing information
that can be reproduced.
3. Learning as acquiring facts, skills and methods that can be
retained and used as necessary.
4. Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning
involves relating parts of the subject matter to each other
and to the real world.
5. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a
different way. Learning involves comprehending the world
by re-interpreting knowledge.

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Definition: Learning is
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A change in behavior as a result of experience or practice.

The acquisition of knowledge.
Knowledge gained through study.
To gain knowledge of, or skill in, something through study,
teaching, instruction or experience.
The process of gaining knowledge.
A process by which behavior is changed, shaped or
controlled.
The individual process of constructing understanding based
on experience from a wide range of sources.
What is Learning?
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Learning is a process

Learning is a product
Products of Learning
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Learning is about ideas and concepts

Learning is about behaviors and skills

Learning is about attitudes and values

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Learning is complex, but not entirely unpredictable

Learning has been the subject of formal study
throughout recorded history
The study of learning has been approached from a
variety of perspectives
Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Domains
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Blooms Taxonomy: Levels of Cognition
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Classification of Learning Outcomes
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Skill-Based Learning
Compilation
Automaticity

Learning

Cognitive Knowledge Attitudinal Learning

Declarative Knowledge Cognate
Procedural Knowledge Affect/Feelings
/Strategic Knowledge.
Situational Knowledge
Competency-Based Learning
(Jones et15al, 2002)
Broad domains of theories
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I believe that (the) educational process has two

sidesone psychological and one sociological. . .
Profound differences in theory are never gratuitous
or invented. They grow out of conflicting elements
in a genuine problem.
-John Dewey, In Dworkin, M. (1959) Dewey on Education
So, how do people learn?
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Easy answer: We dont know for sure.

Difficult answer: We have multiple theories that

provide glimpses of an answer from many different
perspectives. These stem from psychologists,
philosophers, sociologists, anthropologists,
evolutionary biologists, linguists, neuroscientists
Approaches to the Study of Learning
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Behavioral (observable performance)

Cognitive (operational constructs, memory
structures, and mental processes)
Constructive (construction of mental
representations by the learner rather than the
teacher) >>> Cognitive constructivism Social
Constructivism.
Humanism (the learner as a whole person)
Social (the learner as a member of society)
Learning Theories: Perspectives
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If you are designing a learning intervention you can use this to assess how well the intervention covers
"learning fundamentals" identified by each of the theories.

Behaviourism
Key behaviourist thinkers including Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner have hypothesized that learning is a change in
observable behaviour caused by external stimuli in the environment. The key principle of Behaviourism is the reward or
punishment of a new behaviour, commonly described as the 'carrot and stick' approach to learning.
Cognitivism
Cognitivism replaced Behaviourism as the dominant learning paradigm in the 1960s and proposes that learning comes
from mental activity such as memory, motivation, thinking and reflection. Cognitivism focuses on the transmission of
information from someone who knows (such as an 'expert' as opposed to facilitators) to learners who do not know.
Constructivism
From the constructivist perspective, learning is not a stimulus-response phenomenon as described by Behaviourism,
rather it requires self-regulation and the building of conceptual structures through reflection and abstraction. The learner
takes an active role in constructing his own understanding rather than receiving it from someone who knows, learning
through observation, processing and interpretation.
Experientialism
One of the key theorists of experiential learning is David Kolb who developed his experiential model, as opposed to a purer
cognitive which formally recognised that people learn from experience and described learning as following a cycle of
experiential stages.
. Social and Contextual
In the Social and Contextual approach, learning does not occur solely within the learner, but in the group and community
in which they work. Learning is a shared process which takes place through observing, working together and being part of a
larger group, which includes colleagues of varying levels of experience, able to stimulate each other's development.
Resulting Theories and Methods
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Theories of learning
Theories of instruction / Teaching methodology
Theories of instructional design
Theories of assessment
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Theories of learning
&
CLASSROOM PRACTICES
 Main Theories
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1. Behaviorism
2. Cognitivism
3. Social Learning Theory /
Social cognitive theory
4. Constructivism / Social
Constructivism
5. Multiple Intelligences
6. Brain-Based Learning /
Neurology of Learning
7. Information Processing
Theory
Behaviorism
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 Behaviorism
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It is confined to observable
and measurable behavior.
Learning is defined by the
outward expression of new
behaviors and context-
independent.
Biological basis for learning.
Focuses on observable
behaviors.
 Behaviorism
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Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning

(Pavlov) (Skinner)

A stimulus is presented in order to

get a response.
It is about reflexes.

UNCONDITIONED
The response is made first then
STIMULUS + reinforcement follows.
It is about
CONDITIONED STIMULUS feedback/reinforcement.
Learning by own activities
= CONDITIONED REFLEX (operation)

FOOD + SOUND OF BELL =

SALAIVA
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Behaviorism
in the
classroom
Rewards and
Punishments
Responsibility for
student learning
rests squarely with
the teacher.
Lecture-Based and
Highly Structured
Critiques of behaviorism
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It does not account for
processes taking place in the
mind that cannot be
observed.
Advocates for passive student
learning in a teacher-centric
environment.
One size fits all.
Knowledge itself is given and
absolute.
There is programmed
instruction and teacher-
proofing.
Cognitivism
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 Cognitivism
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Grew in response to
Behaviorism. 1970s-1980s:
Cognitive Theories, Information
Processing, Self-Regulated
Learning (Zimmerman &
Schunk 2001)
Knowledge is stored cognitively
as symbols.
Learning is the process of
connecting symbols in a
meaningful and memorable
way.
Studies focused on the mental
processes that facilitate symbol
connection.
Piagets theory of learning
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Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean

Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned for

constructing a highly influential model of

child development and learning.

 Piagets cognitive development theory
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Based on the idea that the developing child builds

cognitive structuresin other words, mental

maps, schemes, or networked concepts for

understanding and responding to physical

experiences within his or her environment.

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Impacts of Piagets theory on Learning

CurriculumEducators must plan a

developmentally appropriate curriculum

that enhances their students logical and

conceptual growth.
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Instruction Teachers must emphasize the

critical role that experiences or interactions

with the surrounding environmentplay in

student learning.
 Cognitive learning theories
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Discovery learning (Bruner) Meaningful verbal learning

(Ausubel)

Anybody can learn anything at any age, provided

it is stated in terms they can understand.
Advance Organizers:
Powerful Concepts (Not Isolated Facts) New material is
Transfer to many different presented in a systematic
situations.
way and is connected to
Only possible through existing cognitive
Discovery Learning.
structures in a
Confront the learner with
meaningful way.
problems and help them When learners have difficulty with new
find solutions. Do not material, go back to the concrete
present sequenced anchors (Advance Organizers).
materials. Provide a discovery approach and they
will learn.
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Cognitivism in
the classroom
Inquiry-Oriented
Projects
Provide
opportunities for the
testing of
hypotheses.
Curiosity is
encouraged.
Stage Scaffolding
Critiques of cognitivism
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Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and

absolute.
Input Process Output model is mechanistic
and deterministic.
It does not account enough for individuality.
It has little emphasis on affective characteristics.
Social learning theory
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Social learning theory
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Grew out of Cognitivism
(Social Cognition): 1960s
Albert Bandura, Walterss
book Social Learning and
Personality Development
Learning takes place through
observation and sensorial
experiences.
Imitation is the sincerest
form of flattery.
Social Learning Theory is the
basis of the movement
against violence in media
and video games.
 Social learning theory
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Learning from Models:
1. Attend to pertinent
clues.
2. Code for memory (store
a visual image).
3. Retain in memory.
4. Accurately reproduce
the observed activity.
5. Possess sufficient
motivation to apply
new learning.
 Social learning theory
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Research indicates that the
following factors influence the
strength of learning from
models:
1. How much power the model
seems to have.
2. How capable the model seems
to be.
3. How nurturing/caring the
model seems to be.
4. How similar the learner
perceives self and model.
5. How many models the learner
observes.
Social learning theory
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Four interrelated processes
establish and strengthen
identification with the
model:
1. Children want to be like
the model.
2. Children believe they are
like the model.
3. Children experience
emotions like those the
model is feeling.
4. Children act like the
model.
Social learning theory
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Through identification, children come to believe

they have the same characteristics as the model.
When they identify with a nurturing and
competent model, children feel pleased and proud.
When they identify with an inadequate model,
children feel unhappy and insecure.
 Social learning theory in the classroom
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Collaborative Learning
and Group Work
Modeling Responses
and Expectations
There are opportunities
to observe experts in
action.
Critiques of social learning theory
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It does not take into account individuality, context

and experience as mediating factors.
Suggests students learn best as passive receivers of
sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active
learners.
Emotions and motivation are not considered
important or connected to learning.
Social constructivism
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Social
constructivism
Grew out of and in
response to
Cognitivism and was
framed around
Metacognition.
1960s
Knowledge is
actively constructed.
Learning is:
A search for meaning
by the learner.
Contextualized
An Inherently Social
Activity
Dialogic and
Recursive
The Responsibility of
the Learner
Social constructivism in the classroom
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Journaling
Experiential Activities
Personal Focus
Collaborative and
Cooperative Learning
Critiques of Social constructivism
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Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor

absolute.
It is often seen as less rigorous than traditional
approaches to instruction.
It does not fit well with traditional age grouping
and rigid terms/semesters.
Multiple Intelligences
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Multiple intelligences
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Grew out of Constructivism and was framed around

Metacognition.
All people are born with 8 intelligences (Gardner):
1. Verbal-Linguistic
2. Visual-Spatial
3. Logical-Mathematical
4. Kinesthetic
5. Musical
6. Naturalist
7. Interpersonal
8. Intrapersonal
Enable students to leverage their strengths and purposefully
target and develop their weaknesses.
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Multiple
intelligences in
the classroom
Delivery of
instruction via
multiple mediums.
Student-Centered
Classroom
Authentic
Assessment
Self-Directed
Learning
Critiques of Multiple intelligences
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Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist.

Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular
and methodological approach has any discernible
impact on learning.
Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and
standards.
Brain-based learning
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Grew out of Neuroscience and Constructivism. 1990s called Decade of

the Brain
12 governing principles:
1. Brain is a parallel processor.
2. Whole Body Learning
3. A search for meaning.
4. Patterning
5. Emotions are critical.
6. Processing of Parts and Wholes
7. Focused Attention and Peripheral Perception
8. Conscious and Unconscious Processes
9. Several Types of Memory
10. Embedded Learning Sticks
11. Challenge and Threat
12. Every brain is unique.
Brain-based learning in the classroom
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Opportunities for Group Learning

Regular Environmental Changes
Multi-Sensory Environment
Opportunities for Self-Expression and Making
Personal Connections to Content
Community-Based Learning
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Critiques of
brain-based
learning
Research conducted
by neuroscientists,
not by teachers and
educational
researchers.
Lack of
understanding of the
brain itself makes
brain-based
learning
questionable.
Individual principles
have been
scientifically
questioned.
Humanist
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
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 Humanist
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All students are
intrinsically motivated
to self actualize or learn.
Learning is dependent
upon meeting a
hierarchy of needs
(physiological,
psychological and
intellectual).
Learning should be
reinforced.
 Other learning theories of
note
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ANDRAGOGY (KNOWLES)
FLOW (CZIKSZENTMIHALYI)
SITUATED LEARNING (LAVE): COMMUNITY OF
PRACTICE, COLLECTIVE KNOWLEDGE.
SUBSUMPTION THEORY (AUSUBEL)
CONDITIONS OF LEARNING (GAGNE)
So what?
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Why is an understanding of learning

theory important for educators?
Epistemology
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Our beliefs about the nature of knowledge, our

epistemology, profoundly influence our
approach to education.
Psychology of Learning
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Our beliefs about how people learn, our

psychology of learning, profoundly influence our
approach to education.
Epistemology Theory - Practice
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All three of these need to align

Our beliefs about knowledge

Our beliefs about learning

Our strategies for practice

Learning theories as glasses
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What would a classroom

look like as viewed through
the lens of:
Plato (rationalist)
Aristotle (empiricist)
Locke (tabula rasa)
Or from these perspectives?
Behaviorism
Constructivism
Sociocultural
Cognitivism
Language Learning Theories
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Summary
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Theories of learning attempt to explain how people

learn.
Different theories are based on different
assumptions and are appropriate for explaining
some aspects / dimensions of learning but not all.
Theories inform teaching practices but ultimately
individual students learning efforts (mental,
physical, emotional and social) shall determine
his/her learning outcomes >>> the need for
autonomous learning >> learner in control.
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As a practicing teachers, we have to develop our own

Learning Theory to guide our teaching based on
own experience and teaching context and principles
drawn from different theoretical / philosophical
perspectives.
Not a single effective learning / teaching method for
all learners / teachers and applicable to all teaching
and learning contexts >>> Post Methods Era
requires critical thinking and the ability to look at
your own teaching from different perspectives,
teacher problem solving ability.
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Academy Award Winner 1989 Starring Robin William