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Photon:
E = hv
h is the planks constant = 6.63 x 10 -34 J-s
E = hc/
Electron being excited or lose due to discrete energy levels, wavelengths intensities
Electron orbit
r, for H = 0.05 nm
v
n=3, paschen series,
n=4, Bracket series,
n=5, pfund series
Ionization Energy
The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the atom.
The position and momentum of a small particle such as an electron can not be
determined simultaneously.
Probability of finding the electron in an Hydrogen atom is high at a radius of about
0.05 nm.
Quantum numbers
Atomic size
IA: Alkali metals (Li, Na, K) one electron in outer shell eager to give up electron
chem. active
Energy, E repulsion
Potential
0
attraction
equilibrium
Ionic:
Example - Na+Cl
Strong Coulomb interaction between
a positive atom (lost an electron, Na+) and
a negative atom (an extra electron, Cl-)
Metallic:
Atoms lose some electrons from valence band
Those electrons are shared by all the material
Example: NaCl
Na has 11 electrons, 1 more than needed for a full outer shell (Neon)
Ut=Ur+Ua
E0 E0 bond energy
F= dE/da
a0 equilibrium distance
a0
at a0, dE/da = 0, Fa = Fr
Tensile
(+)
Force
Compressive
(-)
24
Examples: Ionic Bonding
Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
CaF 2
CsCl
As the cation to anion radius ratios is reduced, fewer anions can sorround a central
Cation in this type of structure.
Benzene
Covalent Bonding
Potential energy of system of covalent bonds
P.E.=
Electric diploes are created when two equal and opposite charges are separated
SECONDARY BONDING
Arises from interaction between dipoles
Fluctuating dipoles
asymmetric electron ex: liquid H 2
clouds H2 H2
+ - + - H H H H
secondary secondary
bonding Adapted from Fig. 2.13,
bonding
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
secon
-ex: polymer dary
bond secondary bonding
ing
The charge value multiplied by the separation distance between the positive and
negative charges the dipole moment
= qd
Fluctuating dipoles
e.g., C-H bonds are arranged in a tetrahedral structure so zero dipole and CH3Cl
Non-symmetrical distribution of three C-H bonds and one C-Cl resulting in a net
dipole moment.
Hydrogen has positive charge centre and oxygen has negative charge centre
Summary: Bonding
Type Bond Energy Comments
Ionic Large! Nondirectional (ceramics)
Metallic Variable
large-Tungsten Nondirectional (metals)
small-Mercury
Secondary smallest Directional
inter-chain (polymer)
inter-molecular
Properties From Bonding: Tm
Bond length, r Melting Temperature, Tm
Energy
r
Bond energy, Eo ro
r
Energy smaller Tm
unstretched length
ro larger Tm
r
Eo = Tm is larger if Eo is larger.
bond energy
Properties From Bonding :
Coefficient of thermal expansion,
length, L o coeff. thermal expansion
unheated, T1
L L
=(T2 -T1)
heated, T2 Lo
~ symmetric at ro
Energy
unstretched length
ro
r is larger if Eo is smaller.
Eo
larger
Eo smaller
Summary: Primary Bonds
Ceramics Large bond energy
(Ionic & covalent bonding): large Tm
large E
small
1. Ionic-covalent bonding
Most covalent bonded molecules have some ionic binding and vice versa
Greater the difference in electronegativies, greater the ionic character of the bond
e.g, GaAs (3-5) and ZnSe (2-6)
2. Metallic-covalent bonding
3. Metallic-ionic bonding