Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Equalization and
Diversity
School of Information
Science and Engineering,
SDU
Outline
l Introduction
l Fundamentals of Equalization
l Survey of Equalization Techniques
l Linear Equalizers
l Nonlinear Equalization
l Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
l Fundamentals of diversity
l Survey of Diversity Techniques
l Frequency/Time/Space/Polarization
Diversity
l Selection/MRC/EGC Combining
l RAKE Receiver
l Interleaving
7.1 Introduction
l The properties of mobile radio channels:
l Multipath fading -> time dispersion, ISI
l Doppler spread -> dynamical fluctuation
These effects have a strong negative impact on the bit error rate of
any modulation.
l Mobile communication systems require signal processing
techniques that improve the link performance in hostile
mobile radio environments.
l Three popular techniques:
l Equalization: compensates for ISI
l Diversity: compensates for channel fading
l Channel coding: detects or corrects errors
These techniques can be deployed independently or jointly.
Transmitted signal: s(t)
Channel model:
h(t) k (t
Received signal: k)
k)
3
2 4
(1) Equalization
Notes
l The three techniques of equalization, diversity, and
channel coding are used to improve radio link performance
(i.e. to minimize the instantaneous bit error rate)
l but the approach, cost, complexity, and effectiveness of
each technique varies widely in practical wireless
communication systems.
7.2 Fundamentals of Equalization
l Equalization
l a technique used to combat ISI;
l can be any signal processing operation that
minimizes ISI;
l usually track the varying channel adaptively.
Operating modes of an adaptive equalizer
l Training (first stage)
l A known fixed-length training sequence is sent by the
transmitter so that the receiver's equalizer may average to a
proper setting.
l The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer
at the receiver to acquire the proper filter coefficients in
the worst possible channel conditions
The training sequence is typically a pseudorandom binary
signal or a fixed, prescribed bit pattern.
Immediately following the training sequence, the user data
is sent.
l The time span over which an equalizer converges is
a function of
1. the equalizer algorithm
2. the equalizer structure
3. the time rate of change of the multipath radio
channel.
Operating modes of an adaptive equalizer
Detector IF Stage
nb (t) + Matched Filter
f (t)
y(t)
Adaptive Decision
heq Equalizer Maker d
(t) (t)
d (t)
e(t)
Relevant equations
yk yk-1 yk-2
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
w0 w1 w2 wN
dk
Adaptive algorithm that updates the weights
ek
Prior knowledge: d k
7.3 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer
(k)]
7.3 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer
Blind algorithms
l more recent class of adaptive algorithms
l able to exploit characteristics of the transmitted signal and
do not require training sequences.
provide equalizer convergence without burdening the
transmitter with training overhead
able to acquire equalization through property
restoral techniques of the transmitted signal,
l Two techniques:
l the constant modulus algorithm (CMA)
used for constant envelope modulation
forces the equalizer weights to maintain a constant envelope
on the received signal
l spectral coherence restoral algorithm (SCORE).
exploits spectral redundancy or cyclostationarity in
the transmitted signal
7.4 Equalizers in a Communications
Receiver
l Because noise is present, an equalizer is unable to achieve
perfect performance.
l Therefore, the instantaneous combined frequency response
will not always be flat, resulting in some finite prediction
l error.
The mean squared error (MSE) E [ek2] is one of the most
important measures of how well an equalizer works.
Minimizing MSE E [ek2] tends to reduce the bit error rate.
l For wireless communication links, it would be best to minimize
the instantaneous probability of error instead of MSE
generally results in nonlinear equations
much more difficult to solve in real-time
7.5 Survey of Equalization
Techniques
l Equalization techniques can be subdivided into two
general categories:
l linear equalization
l The output of the decision maker is not used in the
feedback path to adapt the equalizer.
l nonlinear equalization
l The output of the decision maker is used in the feedback
path to adapt the equalizer.
Equalizer
Linear Nonlinear
Types
DFE ML Symbol MLSE
Detector
Input
Output
Output
Feedf
orward Filter
Feedback Filter
7.7.1 Decision Feedback Equalization
(DFE)
The output of DFE
Matched
Filter
Delay
Channel
Estimator
7.7.2 Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Estimation (MLSE) equalizer
l The MLSE can be viewed as a problem in estimating the
state of a discrete time finite state machine
The channel has ML states, where M is the size of the
symbol alphabet of the modulation.
Disadvantage:
may excessively amplify noise at frequencies where the
folded channel spectrum has high attenuation.
Suitability:
Wireline communications
1 1
H eq ( f ) , f
H ch 2T
(f)
7.8.2 Least Mean Square (LMS)
Algorithm
Criterion:
e ] iteratively
Must be solved
Simplest algorithm, requires only 2N + I operations per iteration.
i.e,
l If an input signal has a time dispersion characteristic that is
greater than the propagation delay through the equalizer,
then the equalizer will be unable to reduce distortion.
of
where i is the ith eigenvalue of the covariance matrix RNN.
is chosen from
About FTF
l Among the RLS algorithms, fast transversal filter (FTF)
algorithm requires the least computation
l a rescue variable can be used to avoid instability.
However, rescue techniques tend to be a bit tricky for
widely varying mobile radio channels.
FTF is not widely used.
Comparison of Various Algorithms for Adaptive
Equalization [Pro9l]
7.9 Fractionally Spaced Equalizers(FSE)
l In the presence of channel distortion, the matched filter prior to
the equalizer must be matched to the channel and the
corrupted signal.
Usually get the suboptimal result because the channel response
is unknown.
This results in a significant degradation in performance.
Path 2
Transmitter Path 1 Receiver
Path 3
7.10 Fundamentals of Diversity Techniques
l Requires no training
Microscopic diversity
l Small-scale fades: deep and rapid amplitude fluctuations over
distances of just a few wavelengths.
caused by multiple reflections from the surroundings in the
vicinity of the mobile.
results in a Rayleigh fading distribution of signal strength over
small distances.
Macroscopic diversity
Macroscopic diversity
Macro-scope diversity
Mobile
7.10 Fundamentals of Diversity Techniques
l Practical considerations
l effectiveness, complexity, cost, and
etc.
7.10.1 Derivation of
Selection Diversity
improvement
l Consider M independent Rayleigh fading channels
available areceiver.
Each channel is called a diversity branch.
7.10.1 Derivation of
Selection Diversity
improvement
l Further assume that each branch has the same average
SNR given by
Where we assume 2 1 .
wherex /.
The above equation can be evaluated to yield the
average SNR improvement offered by selection diversity.
1
M
7.10.1 Derivation of
Selection Diversity
limprovement
Selection diversity offers an average improvement in the link
margin without requiring additional transmitter power or
sophisticated receiver circuitry.
The diversity improvement can be directly related to the
average bit error rate for various modulations.
l Assuming that each branch has the same average noise power
N, the total noise power NT applied to the detector is simply the
weighted sum of the noise in each branch. Thus
l Conclusion:
The SNR out of the diversity combiner is simply the sum of
the SNRs in each branch.
7.10.2 Derivation of Maximal
Ratio Combining Improvement
2) The pdf of M
(7-68)
3) The CDF of M
l 1. Selection diversity
l 2. Feedback diversity
l 3. Maximal ratio combining
l 4. Equal gain diversity
7.10.3 Practical Space
Diversity Considerations
(1) Selection Diversity
l Equal gain combining diversity sets all weights to unity but the
signals from each branch are co-phased.
l The possibility of producing an acceptable signal from a
number of unacceptable inputs is still retained,
l The performance is only marginally inferior to maximal ratio
combining and superior to selection diversity.
7.10. 4 PolarIzation Diversity
At the base station, space diversity is considerably less
practical .
An M branch (M-finger) RAKE receiver implementation. Each correlator detects a time shifted
version of the original CDMA transmission, and each finger of the RAKE correlates to a
portion of the signal which is delayed by at least one chip in time from the other fingers.
7.12 Interleaving
l Interleaving is used to obtain time diversity in a digital
communications system without adding any overhead.
useful technique in all second and third generation digital
cellular systems.
Note: