Learning

Learning
Learning can be defined as a relatively
permanent change in immediate or potential
behavior or mental process that results from
past experience or practice.
Five processes of learning:
Habituation the simplest kind of learning,
accounts for learning to ignore a stimulus that
has become a familiar and has no serious
consequences.
Classical Conditioning an individual learns
that one event follows another
Operant Conditioning a human being learns
that a response he makes will be followed by a
particular consequence
 Social Learning people can learn from the
experience of others
Cognitive Learning Process assumes that
learning results from thinking and other mental
processes
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
- a learning process that occurs when two stimuli
are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first
elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited
by the first stimulus alone.

Ivan Pavlov
- a Russian physiologist who won a Nobel Prize in
1904 for his work on the physiology of the digestive
system of the dog.
Classical Conditioning

In Ivan Pavlovs research, he devised a simple

experiment to determine how salivation could
occur in the absence of an obvious physical
cause. Pavlov came up with these phases in his
experiment.
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov established the existence of the two basic
components for his experiment:

Natural reflex - the automatic response to a

stimulus. (salivation of the dog when food was
placed)
Neutral stimulus - the one that does not elicit
the reflex being studied. (the whistle)
Basic Processes of Classical Conditioning
1. Acquisition. During this stage, repeated pairings of the
conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are said
to strengthen or reinforce the association between the two.
2. Stimulus Generalization. This is the individuals ability to
react to novel stimuli that are similar to familiar ones.
3. Stimulus Discrimination. This is a process complementary
to generalization. If generalization is a reaction to
similarities, discrimination is a reaction to differences.
4. Extinction. This is the individuals response that will
gradually diminish if the association is not reinforced.
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
- involves voluntary behaviors, and is
maintained over time by the consequences that
follow those behaviors.

Burrhus Frederick Fitzgerald Skinner

-regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning,
but his work was based on Thorndlikes law of
effect.
Operant
Examples: Conditioning
A school teacher awards points to those students who are the
most calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize
that when they voluntarily become quieter and better
behaved, that they earn more points.

Parents rewarding a childs excellent grades with candy or

some other prize.

A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal

every time the animal (for example, a dog) fetched the ball.
Basic Components of Operant Conditioning
1. Operant a response that operates in the environment
and has some effect on the world.
2. Reinforcer increases the probability that an operant
behavior will occur again. There are two types of
reinforcers:
a) Positive reinforcers - are favorable events or outcomes that are
given to the individual after the desired behavior.
b) Negative reinforcers are characterized by the removal of an
undesired or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior.
3. Stimulus discrimination refers to stimulus that signal
whether reinforcement is available if a certain response is
made.
The Use of Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement increases the frequency of
behavior but uses an aversive or unpleasant
stimulus.
Escape Learning an organism increases a
particular behavior to end or escape from an
aversive stimulus.
Avoidance Learning a warning stimulus signals
aversive stimulus and the organism learns to
avoid it by emitting the appropriate response to
the warning stimulus
The Use of Punishment
Punishment decreases the frequency of a
behavior.
Social Learning
people can learn from experiences of others.
Albert Bandura came up with several processes of
learning as follows:
Vicarious Conditioning it is a process of learning
by seeing or hearing about the consequences of
other peoples action
Observational learning it is a process of learning
by watching what others are doing.
Four requirements to determine whether
observational learning has occurred
Attention
Retention
Ability to reproduce the behavior
Motivation
What is COGNITIVE LEARNING?
Anyone?
COGNITIVE LEARNING
According to Oxford is the function based on
how a person processes and reasons
information. It revolves around many factors,
including problem-solving skills, memory
retention, thinking skills and the perception of
learned material.
 It is happens both consciously and
unconsciously, meaning information is acquired
as processed at all times. Individuals differ when
conscious learning occurs; some people are
visually cognitive, while others learn best from
hearing the information.
 An example of this is
watching a video tutorial
on how to use a tool, as
opposed to reading the
instruction manual.
In short COGNITIVE

LEARNING is the
result of Listening,
watching, Touching or
Experiencing.
MEMORY
Scientific study
of memory

Herman
Ebbinghau
s
MEMORY
the ability to store and
retrieve information so
that it can be used at a
later time. They have the
ability to remember too.
 HUMAN
MEMORY
a much richer process though. In a
comparable amount of space, the
human brain can store a lifetimes
work of knowledge. It can also
store information from any of our
senses.
BASIC TYPES OF MEMORY

Episodic
Memory
Semantic
Memory
Procedural
Memory
Episodic Memory
This memory of specific event
that happened while you were
present.
Ex: What was your lesson in
General psychology last
meeting?
Semantic Memory
This contains generalized
knowledge of the world that does
not involve memory of a specific
event.
Ex: How do you define
Psychology?
Procedural Memory
This is also called skill
memory because it involves
how to do things.
Ex: How do you start
computer
INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY

Klatzky and
Neisser
refers to the
information-
processing model
of memory.
. When a human memory stores
information, the process may be
divided into into steps:

Encoding Storing

Retrieving Forgetting
 1 Encoding
refers to putting of information into
memory. This requires changing the
information into a form that a human
or a computer can handle.
 2 Storing
refers to how a system
maintains or remembers
information.
 Retrievi
3
ng
means getting the stored information out of
memory. Computers and humans retrieve
information by scanning or searching the
contents of memory for the desired information
 Forgetti
ng
refers to the inability to recall
a particular piece of
information accurately.
 Forgetti
ng
Ebbinghaus noted three main causes of
forgetting:

Retrieval Failure- suggests that forgetting is

due to the inability to recall the information.
Decay Theory- suggests that if people do not use
information stores in long-term memory, it
gradually fades until it is lost.
Interference Theory- holds that forgetting of
information in long-term memory is due to the
influences of other learning.
 It can be retroactive, in which
learning new information
interferes with recall of older
information, or proactive, in
which old information interferes
with learning new information.
THREE STAGES OF MEMORY
 Influential Theory of memory
suggest that in order for
information to become firmly
embedded in memory, it must
pass through three stages of
processing:
 1
Sensory Memory
the first stage of processing wherein
the information from the senses- sight,
sound or smell is held in the sensory
register for a fraction of a second.
Information on the sensory register
may be attended to, analyzed, and
encoded as a meaningful pattern. This
is the process of perception.
 2
Short-Term Memory

second stage of processing. If the

information in sensory memory is
perceived, then it can enter this
stage but the information will
disappear in twenty seconds if not
put in use.
 3Long-Term Memory

If the information in short-term

memory is further processed, it
may be encoded into long-term
memory, where it may stay
indefinitely.
Metamemory

It includes the understanding of ones abilities

and limitations
Includes the understanding of ones abilities and
limitations
Involves knowledge on different kinds of what
types of strategies are more effective in
remembering
Mnemonics
Strategies for placing information in an
organized context in order to remember it.
Mnemonics incorporate visual and verbal forms
of elaborative processing ensuring their
effectiveness
Kinds of Mnemonic Device
1. Rhyme, Acronyms, Acrostics and Peg words.
. The rule I before E except C the rhyme suggests
that the correct order is ie unless the preceding
letter is C
. Another is the acronym a word or named formed
as an abbreviation from the initial components
in a word
 Another technique is the acrostic. Simply
construct a sentence such that each word begins
with the first letter of the to be learned item
The last technique is the peg word the idea is to
link up or associate the list items with memory
gaps.
2. The loci method
Relies on visualizing mental images to associate
with material that need to be remembers
It's based on the assumption that you can best
remember places that you are familiar with, so if you
can link something you need to remember with a place
that you know very well, the location will serve as a
clue that will help you to remember.
3. The keyword method
This is a device for learning foreign language
vocabulary.
it has two steps
First isolate some words to make it sound a real
English word
Second focus on interacting visual image between
the keyword and the English translation of the
foreign word.
4 Organization
A strategy use to remember the context of a
chapter in a book.
5.) PQRST method
One of the best known strategy for improving
memory.
The method got its name from the first letter of
its 5 stages : Preview, Question, Read, Self-
Recitation and Test
Preview
The learners preview the materials to of its
major topics , the Second third and fourth apply
to each major section of the chapter as they are
encountered
Question stage
Readers reads the section and turn it into a
question
Read Stage
Students reads the section with an eye toward
answering these question
Self Recitation stage
Recalls the main ideas in the section and recites
the information either sub-vocally or aloud