CODE

MIXING
BY: NUR FITRAHANA BINTI MOHAMAD
FAUZI
 CODE???
A system used by people to communicate with each other.

A symbol of nationalism that is used by people to speak in a particular

language, or dialect, or register, or accent, or style on different occasions and
for different purposes. (Stockwell)

In communications:
A code is a rule for converting a piece of information (for example, a letter,
word, or phrase) into another form or representation, not necessarily of the
same sort.

People choose a particular code to express their feeling (different codes

in different situation)

When talking about work or school at home, for instance, they may use the
language that is related to those fields rather than the language used in daily
language communication at home.

For code switching or code mixing, the speaker must be a bilingual or

multilingual
 CODE SWITCHING
Occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more
languages, or language varieties in the context of a
single conversation.
Bokamba (1989)
*Code-switching is the mixing of words, phrases and
sentences from two distinct grammatical (sub) systems across
sentence boundaries within the same speech event
In popular usage
*Used to refer to relatively stable informal mixtures of two
languages, such as Spanglish, Franponais or Portuol.
Both in popular usage and in sociolinguistic study:
*Used to refer to switching among dialects, styles or
registers.
Code-switching is:
*The use of more than one linguistic variety in a manner
consistent with the syntax and phonology of each
variety.
 TYPES OF SWITCHING
MECHANICAL SWITCHING
*It occurs unconsciously, and fills in unknown
or unavailable terms in one language.

INTRA-SENTENTIAL SWITCHING
*Occurs within a sentence or a clause.
*It transfers focus from one language to
another.
In Spanish-English switching one could say,
"La onda is to fight y jambar."
("The in-thing is to fight and steal.").
 INTERSENTENTIAL SWITCHING
(EXTRASENTENTIAL SWITCHING)
*Occurs outside the sentence or the
clause level (clause boundaries).

In Assyrian-English switching one could

say,
"Ani wideili. What happened?"
("Those, I did them. What happened?").
 TAG-SWITCHING
*The switching of either a tag phrase or a
word, or both, from one language to
another, (common in intra-sentential
switches).

In Spanish-English switching one could

say,
"l es de Mxico y as los criaron a ellos,
you know."
("He's from Mexico, and they raise them
like that, you know.")
 INTRA-WORD SWITCHING
*Occurs within a word itself, such as at a
morpheme boundary.
In Shona-English switching one could say,
"But ma-day-s a-no a-ya ha-ndi-si ku-mu-
ona.
("But these days I don't see him much.")

Here the English plural morpheme -s

appears alongside the Shona prefix ma-,
which also marks plurality.
 GRAMMARTICAL THEORIES

Linguists have postulated specific

grammatical rules and specific
syntactic boundaries for where
code-switching might occur.
SANKOFF AND POPLACK'S MODEL

The free-morpheme constraint : code-switching cannot occur between

a lexical stem and bound morphemes. Its occurs at either the syntax level
or the utterance-constuction level.

For example, the correct sentence: It obeys the syntactic

"I like you porqaue eres simptico" rules of both Spanish
("I like you because you are nice") and English.

The combinations are

For example, the wrong phrases:
ungrammatical in at
The casa white and the blanca house least one of the
languages involved.

Spanish: noun phrases are made up of determiners, then nouns, then

adjectives.
English: the adjectives come before the noun phrases.

The casa white and the blanca house

It does not obey the syntactic rules of English

It does not follow the syntactic rules of Spanish.
DEBATE

The Closed-class Constraint, by Aravind Joshi :

Closed class items (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc.)
cannot be switched.

The Functional Head Constraint by Belazi et al :

Code-switching cannot occur between a functional head (a
complementizer, a determiner, an inflection, etc.) and its
complement (sentence, noun-phrase, verb phrase).

The Constraint-free approach by Jeff MacSwan :

Nothing constrains code-switching apart from the requirements of
the mixed grammars. The approach focuses on the repudiation of
any rule or principle which explicitly refers to code-switching
itself.

Myers-Scotton and MacSwan debated the relative merits of their

approaches in a series of exchanges published in 2005 in
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, issues 8(1) and 8(2).
 EXAMPLES
SPANISH AND ENGLISH
In this example, MARTA and her younger sister, LOLITA, speak
Spanish and English with PEONA outside of their apartment
building.

LOLITA : Oh, I could stay with Peona?

MARTA : But you could ask papi and mami to see if you could
come down.
LOLITA : OK.
MARTA : Peona, if I leave her here would you send her upstairs
when you leave?
PEONA : Ill tell you exactly when I have to leave, at ten oclock. Y
son las nueve y cuarto. ("And its nine fifteen.")
MARTA : Lolita, te voy a dejar con Peona. ("Im going to leave you
with Ana.") Thank you, Peona.

This explains that the children speak both English and Spanish
where code-switching from English to Spanish occurred in
 CODE MIXING
Code-mixing:
*Mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in
speech without a change of topic.
*The change of one language to another within the same
utterance or in the same oral/written text.
*Occurs when a speaker is momentarily unable to
remember a term, but is able to recall it in a different
language.
Bokamba (1989) :
*Code-mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units
such as affixes (bound morphemes), words (unbound
morphemes), phrases and clauses from a cooperative activity
where the participants, in order to in infer what is intended.
Nababan said :
*Code mixing is found in informal interactions. In formal
situation, the speaker tends to mix it because there is no
exact idiom in that language, so it is necessary to use
words or idioms from other language.
 FEATURES OF CODE MIXING
Sridhar, a linguist, has elaborated the following 3 features of
code mixing through analysis of a text.

The mixed elements are on every level of grammatical

organization such as noun, verbs, attributive and
predicative adjectives, and noun phrases etc.

The mixed elements are not specifically culture oriented or

culture bond. They are mostly from day to day life and
every day usage items, which have acceptable equivalent in
the language in which they are mixed.

The mixed elements obey the rules of the original language

from which they are taken as far as their grammatical
organization is concerned
 REASON OF CODE-MIXING
According to Hoffman, there are a number of reasons
for person to switch or mix their languages. Those
are:
Talking To exclude
Being
about a other people
emphati
To soften when a
particular c about
or comment is
topic somethi
strengthe intended for
ng
n request only a
Intention of or limited
clarifying command audience
the speech Quoting
content for Becaus somebody
interlocutor e of else
real
Repetition lexical
need Expressin
used for Interjecti g group
clarificatio on identity
n
 TYPES OF CODE MIXING
INTRA-LEXICAL MIXING:
*Occurs within a word boundary.
*The insertion of well-defined chunks of language
B into a sentence that otherwise belongs to
language A.
*Insertionof words from one language into a
structure of another language.

INTRA-SENTENTIAL:
*The succession of fragments in language A and B
in a sentence, which is overall not identifiable as
belonging to either A, or B and do come again.
*`That's all right then, and do come again.
 INVOLVING A CHANGE OF PRONUNCIATION:
*Occurs at the phonological level.
*Example:
Indonesian people say an English word, but
modify it to Indonesian phonological
structure.

strawberry is said to be stroberi by Indonesian

people.
* The use of element from either language in a
structure that is wholly or partly shared by
languages A or B.
 CODE MIXING: LINGUISTIC FORM
How mixed is a mixed code?
Code-mixing refers to any admixture of linguistic
elements of two or more language systems in the
same utterance at various levels: phonological,
lexical, grammatical and orthographical.
The discussion will focus on lexical and grammatical
code-mixing.

Phrases
Short forms
Proper nouns
Lexical words
Incomplete sentences
Letters of the alphabet
Single full sentences and two-sentence Units
 Code-mixing as code-switching

Some linguists use the terms code-mixing and

code-switching more or less interchangeably.
Especially in formal studies of syntax,
morphology, etc., both terms are used to refer
to utterances that draw from elements of two
or more grammatical systems. These studies
are often interested in the alignment of
elements from distinct systems, or on
constraints that limit switching.
The term code-mixing may be used to include
both types of language behavior (code
switching and borrowing of words or phrases)
 Code-mixing in sociolinguistics
Code-switching is associated with
particular pragmatic effects,
discourse functions, or associations
with group identity.
Code-mixing or language
alternation are used to describe
more stable situations in which
multiple languages are used without
such pragmatic effects.
 Code-mixing in language acquisition
Code-mixing refers to a developmental stage during which children
mix elements of more than one language.
Nearly all bilingual children go through a period in which they move
from one language to another without apparent discrimination.
This differs from code-switching, which is understood as the socially
and grammatically appropriate use of multiple varieties.
Beginning at the babbling stage, young children in bilingual or
multilingual environments produce utterances that combine elements
of both (or all) of their developing languages. Some linguists suggest
that this code-mixing reflects a lack of control or ability to
differentiate the languages. Others argue that it is a product of
limited vocabulary; very young children may know a word in one
language but not in another. More recent studies argue that this early
code-mixing is a demonstration of a developing ability to code-switch
in socially appropriate ways.
For young bilingual children, code-mixing may be dependent on the
linguistic context, cognitive task demands, and interlocutor.
Code-mixing may also function to fill gaps in their lexical knowledge,
and such lexical uncertainty may subsequently lead to naming errors.
Code-mixing in psychology and psycholinguistics

In psychology and in psycholinguistics

*Code-mixing is used in theories that draw on studies of
language alternation or code-switching to describe the
cognitive structures underlying bilingualism.
During the 1950s and 1960s, psychologists and linguists
treated bilingual speakers as, in Grosjean's term, "two
monolinguals in one person."
This "fractional view" supposed that a bilingual speaker
carried two separate mental grammars that were more or
less identical to the mental grammars of monolinguals
and that were ideally kept separate and used separately.
Studies since the 1970s, however, have shown that
bilinguals regularly combine elements from "separate"
languages. These findings have led to studies of code-
mixing in psychology and psycholinguistics.
 Code-mixing as fused lect
A mixed language or a fused lect is a relatively stable mixture of
two or more languages. What some linguists have described as
"codes switching as unmarked choice" or "frequent code switching"
has more recently been described as "language mixing", or in the
case of the most strictly grammaticalized forms as "fused lects".
In areas where code-switching among two or more languages is very
common, it may become normal for words from both languages to be
used together in everyday speech.
Unlike code-switching, where a switch tends to occur at semantically
or sociolinguistic meaningful junctures, this code-mixing has no
specific meaning in the local context. A fused lect is identical to a
mixed language in terms of semantics and pragmatics, but fused
lects allow less variation since they are fully grammaticalized. In
other words, there are grammatical structures of the fused lect that
determine which source-language elements may occur.
Mixed languages develop from situations of code-switching.
 Local names
There are many names for specific mixed
languages:

Chinglish Maltenglish
Denglisch Poglish
Dunglish Porglish
Englog
Portuol
Franglais
Franponais
Singlish
Greeklish Spanglish
Hinglish Svorsk
Konglish Tanglish
Manglish Taglish

Code-switching
Occurs mostly in
conversation
The term code-switching
emphasize a multilingual
speaker's movement from
one grammatical system
to another.
The choice of speech
alerts the participants to
the interaction of the
context and social
dimension within which
the conversation is taking
place.
The phenomenon of code
switching is examined
from a conversational
analysis perspective
It is viewed as interactive
switching and means basically
intra-sentential code switching.
vs
The termCode-mixing
code mixing
emphasizes hybridization (the
formal aspects of language
structures or linguistic
competence).
Recent research has given new
meaning to this term. Maschler
(1998) defines code mixing or a
mixed code as using two
languages such that a third, new
code emerges, in which
elements from the two
languages are incorporated into
a structurally definable pattern
(p.125)
The code mixing hypothesis
states that when two code
switched languages constitute
the appearance of a third code it
has structural characteristics