VIT UNIVERSITY VELLORE

School of Mechanical & Building Sciences

MEE202
Engineering Mechanics
 Conduct of the Course
Four hours per week including lectures, discussions, and tutorials
There are homework problems, Quizzes, two Continuous
Assessment Tests and a Term End Examination. There will be a
great deal of hands on and observed problem solving in the class.
History has shown Regular attendance is necessary to be successful
in the class. Quizzes will be short
Component Marks
Quiz -I 05
Solve lots of problems
CAT - I 15
Quiz - II 05
CAT - II 15
Quiz III 05
Assignment/Tutorials 05
TEE 50
Total 100
 Goals
At the end of this course, you will be able to demonstrate by
examination that you can

Draw free body diagrams

Write and solve equilibrium equations for particles and rigid
bodies
Find external reactions for rigid bodies
Find solutions for the problems involving dry friction
Find forces acting on the rigid body, structures using the principle
of virtual work
Find centroids and moments of inertia for plane figures
Present solutions to simple engineering problems in a
professional manner
Keep track of units in the problems
 Contents
Unit I
Equilibrium of Particles and Rigid body
Unit II
Friction and Virtual Work
Unit III
Properties of Surfaces and Solids
Unit IV
Kinematic and Kinetics
Unit V
Energy and Momentum Methods
 Text Books
1. Ferdinand P. Beer, E. Russell Johnston, Vector Mechanics for
Engineers.

2. J. L. Meriam and L. G. Kraige (2006), Engineering Mechanics:

Statics and Dynamics (6th Edition), Wiley Publishers

References
1. Irving H. Shames, (2003), Engineering Mechanics Statics and
Dynamics, Prentice-Hall of India Private limited.

2. Russell C Hibbeler, (2009), Engineering Mechanics: Statics and

Dynamics (12th Edition), Prentice Hall.

3. MeLean and Nelson, Engineering Mechanics, Schaums Outline

Series
 What is Mechanics?
Science which describes and predicts the conditions of rest or
motion of bodies under the action of forces
The purpose of mechanics is to explain and predict physical
phenomena and thus to lay the foundations for engineering
applications

Applied Mechanics

Mechanics of Mechanics of
Mechanics of fluids
Deformable bodies
rigid bodies

Statics Dynamics

Kinematics Kinetics
Mechanics -studies of motion and cause of motion

Statics Load /Deformation/stress/strain/strain energy

Displacement

Kinematics velocity

Acceleration
Dynamics

Force/torque
Kinetics
Energy/momentum
 Fundamental concepts
Space - associated with the representation of the position of a point P given
in terms of three coordinates measured from a reference point or origin.

Time definition of an event requires specification of the time and position

at which it occurred.

Mass used to characterize and compare bodies, e.g., response to earths

gravitational attraction and resistance to changes in translational motion.

Force represents the action of one body on another. A force is

characterized by its point of application, magnitude, and direction, i.e., a
force is a vector quantity.
 Six Fundamental Principles
Newtons First Law: If the resultant force
on a particle is zero, the particle will remain at
rest or continue to move in a straight line.

Newtons Second Law: A particle will

have an acceleration proportional to a
nonzero resultant applied force.
Parallelogram Law
F ma
Newtons Third Law: The forces of action
and reaction between two particles have the
same magnitude and line of action with
opposite sense.

Newtons Law of Gravitation: Two

Principle of particles are attracted with equal and opposite
Transmissibility forces,
Mm GM
F G 2 W mg , g 2
r R
 Systems of Units
International System of units (SI Units)
Length meter (m) Multiplication Prefix Symbol
Factor
Mass kilogram (kg)
Time second (s) 1012 Tera T
Force Newton (N)
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo K
10-3 Mili m
10-6 Micro
10-9 Nano n
10-12 Pico p
 Force
Force may be defined as the action that tends to change the state of
rest or motion of a body to which it is applied

Characteristics of force are its

1. Magnitude
2. Point of application
3. Direction

Unit: Newton (N)

1Newton is defined as the force which gives an acceleration of

1m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg.
 Concentrated force or a point force: it is the force acting
on a very small area.
Distributed force: force distributed over a length or an area or a
volume
Line of action of force: Direction along a straight line through
its point of application, in which the force tends to move a body to
which it is applied.
Graphical representation of force:
 System of forces: when several forces of various magnitude and
direction act upon a body they are said to form system of forces.
Classification of system of forces: Classified as per
orientation of line of action of forces.
system of forces

Coplanar Non Coplanar

Concurrent Non- concurrent Concurrent Non- concurrent

Parallel General Parallel General

Concurrent force system: acts on a particle or rigid body

Parallel and General force system: act only on system of particles or

rigid bodies
 Vector: parameters possessing magnitude and
direction which add according to the
parallelogram law. Examples: displacements,
velocities, accelerations.

Scalar: parameters possessing magnitude but not direction.

Examples: mass, volume, temperature
Vector classifications:
- Fixed or bound vectors have well defined points of
application that cannot be moved without modifying the
conditions of the problem.

- Free vectors may be freely moved in space without changing

their effect on an analysis.
-Sliding vectors may be applied anywhere along their line of
action without affecting an analysis.

-Equal vectors have the same magnitude and direction.

- Negative vector of a given vector has the same magnitude and

the opposite direction.

P + (-P) = 0
 Principle of Transmissibility
The principle of transmissibility states that the conditions of
equilibrium or motion of rigid body will remain unchanged if a force
F acting at a given point of rigid body is replaced by a force F of the
same magnitude and same direction, but acting at different point,
provided that the two forces have the same line of action.

F and F are equivalent forces.

 Moving the point of application of the force F to the rear bumper
does not affect the motion or the other forces acting on the truck.

Principle of transmissibility may not always apply in determining

internal forces and deformations.
Addition of Vectors
Triangle rule for vector addition

Law of cosines,
R 2 P 2 Q 2 2 PQ cos B

R PQ

Law of sines,
sin A sin B sin C

Q R A

Vector addition is commutative,

PQ Q P

Vector subtraction
 Addition of three or more vectors
through repeated application of the
triangle rule

The polygon rule for the addition of

three or more vectors.

Vector addition is associative,

P Q S P Q S P Q S

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

 Q
P P Concurrent forces: set of forces
S which all pass through the same
A R point.
S
A Q
A set of concurrent forces applied to a
particle may be replaced by a single
resultant force which is the vector
sum of the applied forces.
Vector force components: two or more
force vectors which, together, have the
same effect as a single force vector.
Sample Problem 1
SOLUTION:
Graphical solution - A parallelogram
with sides equal to P and Q is drawn
to scale. The magnitude and direction
of the resultant or of the diagonal to
The two forces act on a the parallelogram are measured
bolt at A. Determine their
resultant.

R 98 N 35
 Trigonometric solution - use the triangle rule for vector addition in
conjunction with the law of cosines and law of sines to find the
resultant. Trigonometric solution - Apply the triangle rule.
From the Law of Cosines,
R 2 P 2 Q 2 2 PQ cos B
40N 2 60N 2 2 40N 60N cos155
R 97.73N
From the Law of Sines,
sin A sin B

Q R
Q
sin A sin B
R
60N
sin 155
97.73N
A 15.04
20 A
35.04
Rectangular Components of a Force: Unit Vectors
May resolve a force vector into perpendicular
components so that the resulting parallelogram

is a rectangle, Fx and Fy are referred to as
rectangular vector components and

F Fx Fy
Define perpendicular unit vectors
which are parallel to the x and y axes.
Vector components may be expressed as
products of the unit vectors with the scalar
magnitudes of the vector components.

F Fx i Fy j
Fx and Fy are referred to as the scalar
components of
 Addition of Forces by Summing Components
Wish to find the resultant of 3 or
more concurrent forces,

R PQ S
Resolve each force into rectangular
components

Rx i R y j Px i Py j Qx i Q y j S x i S y j
Px Qx S x i Py Q y S y j

The scalar components of the resultant
are equal to the sum of the corresponding
scalar components of the given forces.
R x Px Q x S x R y Py Q y S y
Fx Fy
To find the resultant magnitude
and direction, 2 2 1 R y
R Rx R y tan
Rx
 Sample Problem
Four forces act on bolt A as shown. Determine the resultant of the
force on the bolt.
SOLUTION:

Resolve each force into

rectangular components.
Determine the components of the
resultant by adding the
corresponding force components.

Calculate the magnitude and

R 199.6 N 4.1
direction of the resultant.
SOLUTION: force mag x comp y comp
Resolve each force into rectangular
components.
F1 150 129.9 75.0

F2 80 27.4 75.2

F3 110 0 110.0

F4 100 96.6 25.9
Rx 199.1 R y 14.3
Determine the components of the
resultant by adding the
corresponding force components.
Calculate the magnitude and
direction
2 2 tan 14.3 N
R 199.1 14.3
199.1 N
R 199.6 N 4 .1
 Determine the x and y components of each of the forces and resultant of three forces
shown.

Determine the x and y components of each of the forces and resultant of three
forces shown.
 Determine the x and y components of each of the forces and resultant of three
forces shown.

Member BD exerts on member ABC a force P directed along line BD. Knowing that
P must have a 960-N vertical component, determine
(a) the magnitude of the force P, (b) its horizontal component.
Knowing that the tension in cable BC is 145 N, determine the resultant of the three
forces exerted at point B of beam AB.

Knowing that = 65, determine the resultant of the three forces shown.
 Equilibrium of a Particle
When the resultant of all forces acting on a particle is zero, the
particle is in equilibrium.
Particle acted upon by two
forces:
- equal magnitude
- same line of action
- opposite sense

Newtons First Law: If the resultant force on a particle is zero, the

particle will remain at rest or will continue at constant speed in a
straight line.
 Particle acted upon by three or more forces:
- graphical solution yields a closed
polygon

F1 = 300 N
A

F2 = 173.2N

F4 = 400 N
F3 = 200 N
- algebraic solution

R F 0
Fx 0 Fy 0
 Free-Body Diagrams
Free body diagram ids the sketch of the isolated body which shows
the external force on the body and the reactions on it by the removed
elements.
General Procedure for construction of free body diagram
1. Draw the sketch of body without supporting surfaces.

2. Show all the external or applied forces on this sketch

3. Show all the reactive forces such as those caused by constraints

or supports

4. Show all relevant dimensions , angles and reference axes on the

sketch
 External and Internal Forces
Forces acting on rigid bodies are divided into two groups:
- External forces
- Internal forces

External forces are shown in a free-body diagram.

If unopposed, each external force can impart a motion of

translation or rotation, or both.
 Types of support
1. Frictionless Support: Reactions are normal to the surface at the
point of contact W

c
W
A
RA
2. Hinge support or pin jointed support:
RAx

RAy
3. Roller Support :

RA
4. Fixed Support : RAx

RAy
MA
Draw FDB for following system

WP
WQ
RA

RC

WP

RA
WQ RD

RB
RC

RD
 Free-Body Diagrams

TAB
TAC

500 A 300

736 N

Free-Body Diagram: A sketch

Space Diagram: A sketch
showing only the forces on the
showing the physical
selected particle.
conditions of the problem.
Sample Free Body Diagrams
 Lamis Theorem
If the three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.
Q

P sin 2
2 1
O P

R 3
Sample Problem Solution:
Construct a free-body diagram
for the particle at the junction of
the rope and cable.
Apply the conditions for
equilibrium by creating a closed
polygon from the forces applied
to the particle.
Apply trigonometric relations to
determine the unknown force
In a ship-unloading operation, a magnitudes.
3500-N automobile is supported by
a cable. A rope is tied to the cable
and pulled to center the automobile
over its intended position. What is
the tension in the rope?
Solution Free-body diagram for the particle at A.

Solve for the unknown force magnitudes.

TAB T 3500 N
AC
sin 120 sin 2 sin 58
TAB 3570 N
TAC 144 N
Two cables are tied together at C and are loaded as shown. Determine
the tension
(a) in cable AC, (b) in cable BC.

Ans: (a) 2.20 kN, (b) 2.43 kN

Knowing that = 50 and that boom AC exerts on pin C a force
directed along line AC, determine (a) the magnitude of that force, (b)
the tension in cable BC.

Ans: 169.7 kN, (b) 348 kN

A boat is pulling a parasail and rider at a constant speed. Knowing that
the rider weighs 550 N and that the resultant force R exerted by the
parasail on the towing yoke A forms an angle of 65 with the
horizontal, determine
(a) the tension in the tow rope AB, (b) the magnitude of R.

Ans: (a) 405 N, (b) 830 N

Two traffic signals are temporarily suspended from a cable as shown.
Knowing that the signal at B weighs 300 N, determine the weight of
the signal at C.

Ans: 97.7 N
Two cables tied together at C are loaded as shown. Knowing that W =
190 N, determine the tension (a) in cable AC, (b) in cable BC.
Determine the range of values of W for which the tension will not
exceed 240 N in either cable.

Ans: (a) 169.6 N, (b) 265 N

A load of weight 400 N is suspended from a spring and two cords that
are attached to blocks of weights 3W and W as shown. Knowing that
the constant of the spring is 800 N/m, determine
(a) the value of W, (b) the unstretched length of the spring.

Ans: (a) 62.8 N, (b)758 mm

A block of weight W is suspended from a 25cm long cord and two
springs of which the unstretched lengths are 22.5 cm. Knowing that
the constants of the springs are kAB =9 N/cm. and kAD = 3 N/cm.,
determine
(a) the tension in the cord, (b) the weight of the block.

Ans: (a) 19.85 N, (b) 62.3 N

 Rectangular Components of a force in Space

Resolve into
The vector is Resolve into rectangular
contained in the horizontal and components.
plane OBAC. vertical
components. Fx Fh cos
F sin y cos
Fy F cos y
Fz Fh sin
Fh F sin y F sin y sin
 With the angles between F and the axes,
Fx F cos x Fy F cos y Fz F cos z

F Fx i Fy j Fz k

F cos x i cos y j cos z k


F

cos x i cos y j cos z k

is a unit vector along the line of action ofF
and cos x , cos
are thedirection
y , and coscosines
z for
F
Direction of the force is defined by the location of two points,
M x1 , y1 , z1 and N x2 , y 2 , z 2

d vector joining M and N

d xi d y j d z k
d x x2 x1 d y y 2 y1 d z z 2 z1

F F
1
d xi d y j d z k

d
Fd x Fd y Fd z
Fx Fy Fz
d d d
 Addition of Concurrent forces in Space
The resultant R of two or more forces in space will be determined by
summing their rectangular components

R=F

Magnitude of the force is given by

Sample Problem Solution:
Based on the relative locations of
the points A and B, determine the
unit vector pointing from A
towards B.
Apply the unit vector to
determine the components of the
force acting on A.
Noting that the components of
The tension in the guy wire is the unit vector are the direction
2500 N. Determine: cosines for the vector, calculate
the corresponding angles.
a) components Fx, Fy, Fz of the
force acting on the bolt at A,
b) the angles qx, qy, qz defining
the direction of the force
 Determine the unit vector pointing
from A towards B.

AB 40 m i 80 m j 30 m k
AB 40 m 2 80 m 2 30 m 2
94.3 m
40 80 30
i j k
94.3 94.3 94.3

0.424 i 0.848 j 0.318k
Determine the components of the force.

F F

2500 N 0.424 i 0.848 j 0.318k


1060 N i 2120 N j 795 N k
 Noting that the components of the unit vector are
the direction cosines for the vector, calculate the
corresponding angles.

cos x i cos y j cos z k

0.424 i 0.848 j 0.318k

x 115.1
y 32.0
z 71.5
1. A transmission tower is held by three guy wires anchored by bolts at B, C, and
D. If the tension in wire AB is 2100 N, determine the components of the force
exerted by the wire on the bolt at B.
2. A transmission tower is held by three guy wires anchored by bolts at B, C, and
D. If the tension in wire AD is 1260 N, determine the components of the force
exerted by the wire on the bolt at D.
Two cables BG and BH are attached to the frame ACD as shown.
Knowing that the tension in cable BG is 450 N, determine the
components of the force exerted by cable BG on the frame at B.
Two cables BG and BH are attached to the frame ACD as shown.
Knowing that the tension in cable BH is 600 N, determine the
components of the force exerted by cable BH on the frame at B.
The boom OA carries a load P and is supported by two cables as
shown. Knowing that the tension is 510 N in cable AB and 765 N in
cable AC, determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of
the forces exerted at A by the two cables.
For the transmission tower shown below, determine the tensions in
cables AB and AD knowing that the tension in cable AC is 1770 N
and that the resultant of the forces exerted by the three cables at A
must be vertical.
For the boom shown below, knowing that = 0, the tension in cable
AB is 600 N, and the resultant of the load P and the force exerted at
A by the two cables is directed along OA, determine (a) the tension
in cable AC, (b) the magnitude of the load P.
The support assembly shown is bolted in place at B, C, and D and
supports a downward force P at A. Knowing that the forces in
members AB, AC, and AD are directed along the respective members
and that the force in member AB is 29.2 N, determine the magnitude
of P.
 Vector Product of Two Vectors
Concept of the moment of a force about a
point is more easily understood through
applications of the vector product or cross
product.
Vector product of two vectors P and Q
is defined as the vector V which satisfies
the following conditions:
1. Line of action of V is perpendicular
to plane containing P and Q.
2. Magnitude of V is
3. Direction of V is obtained from the
right-hand rule.
Vector products:
- are not commutative, Q P P Q
- are distributive, P Q1 Q2 P Q1 P Q2
- are not associative P Q S P Q S
 Vector Products: Rectangular Components
Vector products of Cartesian unit vectors,

i i 0 j i k k i j

i j k j j 0 k j i

i k j j k i k k 0
 Vector products in terms of rectangular coordinates

V Px i Py j Pz k Q x i Q y j Q z k

Py Qz Pz Q y i Pz Qx Px Q z j


Px Q y Py Qx k

i j k
Px Py Pz
Qx Qy Qz
 Moment of a Force About a Point
A force vector is defined by its magnitude and direction. Its effect
on the rigid body also depends on it point of application.
The moment of F about O is defined as
MO r F
The moment vector MO is perpendicular to
the plane containing O and the force F.
Magnitude of MO measures the tendency of
the force to cause rotation of the body about
an axis along MO.
M O rF sin Fd
The sense of the moment may be
determined by the right-hand rule.
 S.I Unit : N. m

Although the moment Mo of force about a point depends upon a

magnitude, the line of action, and the sense of the force, it does not
depends upon the actual position of the point of application of the
force along its line of action.

Conversely, the moment Mo of the force F does not characterize the

point of application of force F

Any force F that has the same magnitude and direction as F, is

equivalent if it also has the same line of action and therefore,
produces the same moment.
 Moment of a Force About a Point
Two-dimensional structures have length and
breadth but negligible depth and are subjected
to forces contained in the plane of the
structure.

The plane of the structure contains the

point O and the force F. MO, the moment
of the force about O is perpendicular to the
plane.
 If the force tends to rotate the structure counterclockwise, the sense
of the moment vector is out of the plane of the structure and the
magnitude of the moment is positive.

If the force tends to rotate the structure clockwise, the sense of the
moment vector is into the plane of the structure and the magnitude
of the moment is negative.
 Varignons Theorem
The moment about a give point O of the resultant of several
concurrent forces is equal to the sum of the moments of the various
forces about the same point O.

r F1 F2 r F1 r F2

Varigons Theorem makes it possible to replace the direct

determination of the moment of a force F by the moments of two
or more component forces of F.
 Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force

The moment of F about O,

MO r F, r xi yj zk

F Fx i Fy j Fz k

M O M xi M y j M z k

i j k
x y z
Fx Fy Fz

yFz zFy i zFx xFz j xFy yFx k
 The moment of F about B,

M B rA / B F

rA / B rA rB

x A xB i y A y B j z A z B k

F Fx i Fy j Fz k

i j k

M B x A xB y A yB z A zB
Fx Fy Fz
For two-dimensional structures,



M O xFy yFz k
MO M Z
xFy yFz

M O x A xB Fy y A y B Fz k
MB MZ
x A xB Fy y A y B Fx
Sample Problem A 100 N vertical force is applied to the
end of a lever which is attached to a
shaft at O.
Determine:
a) moment about O,
b) horizontal force at A which creates the
same moment,
c) smallest force at A which produces the
same moment,
d) location for a 240 N vertical force to
produce the same moment,
e) whether any of the forces from b, c,
and d is equivalent to the original
force.
The rectangular plate is supported by the brackets at A and B and by a
wire CD. Knowing that the tension in the wire is 200 N, determine
the moment about A of the force exerted by the wire at C.

Solution: M A rC A F

rC A rC rA AC 0.3 m i 0.08 m k

rC D
F F 200 N
rC D

0.3 m i 0.24 m j 0.32 m k
200 N
0.5 m

120 N i 96 N j 128 N k

i j k

M A 0.3 0 0.08
120 96 128

M A 7.68 N m i 28.8 N m j 28.8 N m k
A sign is suspended from two chains AE and BF. Knowing that the
tension in BF is 200 N, determine (a) the moment about A of the force
exerted by the chain at B, (b) the smallest force applied at C which
creates the same moment about A, (c) the smallest force applied at B
which creates the same moment about A
Before a telephone cable is strung, rope BAC is tied to a stake at B
and is passed over a pulley at A. Knowing that portion AC of the
rope lies in a plane parallel to the xy plane and that the magnitude of
the tension T in the rope is 62 lb, determine the moment about O of
the resultant force exerted on the pulley by the rope.
A precast concrete wall section is temporarily held by two cables as
shown. Knowing that the tensions in cables BD and FE are 900 N and
675 N, respectively, determine the moment about point O of the force
exerted by (a) cable BD, (b) cable FE.
It is known that the connecting rod AB exerts on the crank BC a 2.5-
kN force directed down and to the left along the centerline of AB.
Determine the moment of that force about C.
A force and a couple lying in the yz plane are applied to the end of a cantilevered
wide-flange beam. This system is to be replaced with a single equivalent force.
(a) For = 15, determine the magnitude and the line of action of the equivalent
force,
(b) Determine the value of if the line of action of the equivalent force intersects a
line drawn through points B and C 40 mm above C.
An eccentric, compressive 250-kN force P is applied to the end of a
column. Replace P with an equivalent force-couple system at G.
Two workers use blocks and tackles attached to the bottom of an I-beam to lift a
large cylindrical tank. Knowing that the tension in rope AB is 54 N replace the force
exerted at A by rope AB with an equivalent force-couple system at E.
Two workers use blocks and tackles attached to the bottom of an I-beam to lift a
large cylindrical tank. Knowing that the tension in rope CD is 61 N, replace the
force exerted at C by rope CD with an equivalent force-couple system at O.
 Scalar Product of Two Vectors
The scalar product or dot product between
two vectors P and Q is defined as

P Q PQ cos scalar result
Scalar products:

- are commutative, P Q Q P

- are distributive, P Q1 Q2 P Q1 P Q2

- are not associative, P Q S undefined
Scalar products with Cartesian unit components,

P Q Px i Py j Pz k Qx i Q y j Qz k

i i 1 j j 1 k k 1 i j 0 j k 0 k i 0

P Q Px Qx Py Q y Pz Qz

P P Px2 Py2 Pz2 P 2
 Angle between two vectors:

P Q PQ cos Px Qx Py Q y Pz Qz
Px Qx Py Q y Pz Qz
cos
PQ
Projection of a vector on a given axis:
POL P cos projection of P along OL

P Q PQ cos

P Q
P cos POL
Q

For an axis defined by a unit vector:

POL P
Px cos x Py cos y Pz cos z
Mixed Triple Product of Three Vectors

S P Q scalar result

The six mixed triple products formed from

S, P, and Q have equal magnitudes but not
the same sign,

S P Q P Q S Q S P

S Q P P S Q Q P S

Evaluating the mixed triple product,

S P Q S x Py Qz Pz Q y S y Pz Qx Px Qz
S z PxyQz Py Qx
Sx Sy Sz
Px Py Pz
Qx Qy Qz
 Moment of a Force About a Given Axis
Moment MO of a force F applied at the point A
about a point O,

MO r F

Scalar moment MOL about an axis OL is

the projection of the moment vector MO
onto the axis,

M OL M O r F
Moments of F about the coordinate axes,

M x yFz zFy
=
M y zFx xFz
M z xFy yFx
 Moment of a force about an arbitrary axis

M BL MB

rA B F

rA B rA rB

The result is independent of the point B along the given axis.

=
The rectangular platform is hinged at A and B and is supported by a
cable that passes over a frictionless hook at E. Knowing that the
tension in the cable is 1349 N, determine the moment about each of
the coordinate axes of the force exerted by the cable at C.
The frame ACD is hinged at A and D and is supported by a cable that
passes through a ring at B and is attached to hooks at G and H.
Knowing that the tension in the cable is 1125 N, determine the
moment about the diagonal AD of the force exerted on the frame by
portion BH & BG of the cable.
 Couple
Two forces F and -F having the same
magnitude, parallel lines of action, and opposite
sense are said to form a couple.

Moment of the couple

M rA F rB F

rA rB F

rF
M rF sin Fd

The moment vector of the couple is

independent of the choice of the origin of the
coordinate axes, i.e., it is a free vector that
can be applied at any point with the same
effect.
Two couples will have equal moments if

F1d1 F2 d 2

the two couples lie in parallel planes, and

the two couples have the same sense or the tendency to cause
rotation in the same direction.
 Addition of Couples
Consider two intersecting planes P1 and P2 with each containing
a couple

M 1 r F1 in plane P1

M 2 r F2 in plane P2

Resultants of the vectors also form a couple

M r R r F1 F2
By Varigons theorem

M r F1 r F2

M1 M 2

Sum of two couples is also a couple that is equal

to the vector sum of the two couples
 Couples Can Be Represented by Vectors

A couple can be represented by a vector with magnitude and

direction equal to the moment of the couple.

Couple vectors obey the law of addition of vectors.

Couple vectors are free vectors, i.e., the point of application is

not significant.
Couple vectors may be resolved into component
vectors.
 Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a Couple

Force vector F can not be simply moved to O without modifying

its action on the body.
Attaching equal and opposite force vectors at O produces no net
effect on the body.
The three forces may be replaced by an equivalent force vector
and couple vector, i.e, a force-couple system.
 Moving F from A to a different point O requires the addition of
a different couple vector MO

M O' r F
The moments of F about O and O are relate

M O ' r ' F r s F r F s F

MO s F
Moving the force-couple system from O to O requires the
addition of the moment of the force at O about O.
 System of Forces: Reduction to a Force and Couple

A system of forces may be replaced by a collection of force-couple

systems acting a given point O
The force and couple vectors may be
combined into a resultant force vector and a
resultant couple vector,
Equivalent force - couple system is
defined by
R
R F M O r F
 The force-couple system at O may be moved to O with the
addition of the moment of R about O ,
R R
M O' M O s R

Two systems of forces are

equivalent if they can be reduced to
the same force-couple system.
 Further Reduction of a System of Forces

If the resultant force and couple at O are mutually

perpendicular, they can be replaced by a single
force acting along a new line of action.

The resultant force-couple system for a system

of forces will be mutually perpendicular if:
1) the forces are concurrent,
2) the forces are coplanar, or
3) the forces are parallel.
 System of coplanar forces is reduced to a force-couple system
R
R and M O that is mutually perpendicular.

System can be reduced to a single force by moving

R the line of
action of R until its moment about O becomes M O

In terms of rectangular coordinates,

xR y yRx M OR
 Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies
For a rigid body in static equilibrium, the external forces and
moments are balanced and will impart no translational or rotational
motion to the body.
The necessary and sufficient condition for the static equilibrium of a
body are that the resultant force and couple from all external forces
form a system equivalent to zero,

F 0 M O r F 0
Resolving each force and moment into its rectangular components
leads to 6 scalar equations which also express the conditions for
static equilibrium,

Fx 0 Fy 0 Fz 0
Mx 0 M y 0 Mz 0
Free-Body Diagram
First step in the static equilibrium analysis of a
rigid body is identification of all forces acting on
the body with a free-body diagram.

Select the extent of the free-body and detach

it from the ground and all other bodies.

Indicate point of application, magnitude, and

direction of external forces, including the rigid
body weight.

Indicate point of application and assumed

direction of unknown applied forces. These
usually consist of reactions through which the
ground and other bodies oppose the possible
motion of the rigid body.

Include the dimensions necessary to compute

the moments of the forces.
 Reactions at Supports and Connections for a Two-
Dimensional Structure
Reactions equivalent to a force with known line of action.
 Reactions equivalent to a force of unknown direction and magnitude.

Reactions equivalent to a force and a couple.

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body in Two Dimensions
For all forces and moments acting on a
two-dimensional structure,
Fz 0 Mx My 0 M z MO

Equations of equilibrium become

Fx 0 Fy 0 M A 0
where A is any point in the plane of
the structure.
The 3 equations can be solved for no
more than 3 unknowns.
The 3 equations can not be augmented
with additional equations, but they
can be replaced
Fx 0 M A 0 M B 0
 Statically Indeterminate Reactions

More unknowns Fewer unknowns Equal number unknowns

than equations than equations, and equations but
partially constrained improperly constrained
 A fixed crane has a mass 0f 1000 kg and is used
Sample Problem to lift a load of 2400 kg crate. It is held in place
by a pin at A and the rocker at B. the center of
gravity of the crane is located at G. determine
the components of the reactions at A and B.

Determine B by solving the equation for the sum

of the moments of all forces about A.
M A 0 : B1.5m 9.81 kN 2m
23.5 kN 6m 0

Solution
Create the free-body diagram.
B 107.1 kN
Determine the reactions at A by solving the
equations for the sum of all horizontal forces
and all vertical forces.
Fx 0 : Ax B 0
Ax 107.1 kN

Fy 0 : Ay 9.81kN 23.5 kN 0
Ay 33.3 kN
Sample Problem A loading car is at rest on an inclined track. The
gross weight of the car and its load is 5500 lb, and
it is applied at at G. The cart is held in position by
the cable.
Determine the tension in the cable and the reaction
at each pair of wheels.

Solution
Create a free-body diagram
Wx 5500 lb cos 25
4980 lb

W y 5500 lb sin 25
2320 lb
 Determine the reactions at the
wheels.
M A 0 : 2320 lb 25in. 4980 lb 6in.
R2 50in. 0

R2 1758 lb
M B 0 : 2320 lb 25in. 4980 lb 6in.
R1 50in. 0
R1 562 lb

Determine the cable tension.

Fx 0 : 4980 lb T 0
T 4980 lb
The frame shown supports part of the roof of a small building.
Knowing that the tension in the cable is 150 kN, determine the
reaction at the fixed end E.

Ex = 90.0 kN, Ey = 200 kN, ME = 180.0 kN . m

 Equilibrium of a Rigid Body in Three Dimensions
Six scalar equations are required to express the conditions for the
equilibrium of a rigid body in the general three dimensional case.

Fx 0 Fy 0 Fz 0
Mx 0 M y 0 Mz 0

These equations can be solved for no more than 6 unknowns which

generally represent reactions at supports or connections.

The scalar equations are conveniently obtained by applying the

vector forms of the conditions for equilibrium,

F 0 M O r F 0
Reactions at Supports and Connections for a Three-Dimensional
Structure
Determine the tension in cable ABD and reaction at support C.
A sign is hung by two chains from mast AB. The mast is hinged at A
and is supported by cable BC. Knowing that the tensions in chains DE
and FH are 225 N and 135 N, respectively, and that d = 0.39 m,
determine (a) the tension in cable BC, (b) the reaction at A.
Determine the reactions at A and B when (a) = 0, (b) = 90,
(c) = 30.
Horizontal and vertical links are hinged to a wheel, and forces are
applied to the links as shown. Knowing that a = 75 mm,
1. Determine the value of P and the reaction at A.
2. Determine the range of values of the distance a for which the
magnitude of the reaction at A does not exceed 180 N.
Neglecting friction and the radius of the pulley, determine the tension in
cable BCD and the reaction at support A when d = 10 cm.

T = 65.37 N
Neglecting friction and the radius of the pulley, determine
(a) the tension in cable ADB,
(b) the reaction at C.

T = 140.250 N, C = 152.16 N, = 2.050

A 10-kg block can be supported in the three different ways shown.
Knowing that the pulleys have a 100-mm radius, determine the
reaction at A in each case.

1. A = 98.1 N, MA = 44.1 N.m

2. A = 138.7 N, MA = 44.1 N.m

3. A = 196.2 N, MA = 88.3 N.m

In a laboratory experiment, students hang the weights shown from a
beam of negligible weight.
(a) Determine the reaction at the fixed support A knowing that end D
of the beam does not touch support E.
(b) Determine the reaction at the fixed support A knowing that the
adjustable support E exerts an upward force of 2.4 N on the beam.
The rig shown consists of a 5.4-kN horizontal member ABC and a
vertical member DBE welded together at B. The rig is being used to
raise a 16.2-kN crate at a distance x = 4.8 m from the vertical member
DBE. If the tension in the cable is 18 kN, determine the reaction at E
assuming that the cable is (a) anchored at F as shown in the figure, (b)
attached to the vertical member at a point located 0.4 m above E.
A lever AB is hinged at C and is attached to a control cable at A. If the
lever is subjected to a 60-lb vertical force at B, determine (a) the
tension in the cable, (b) the reaction at C.
FRICTION
 Introduction
It is assumed that surfaces in contact were either frictionless
(surfaces could move freely with respect to each other) or rough
(tangential forces prevent relative motion between surfaces).

Actually, no perfectly frictionless surface exists. For two surfaces

in contact, tangential forces, called friction forces, will develop if
one attempts to move one relative to the other.
However, the friction forces are limited in magnitude and will not
prevent motion if sufficiently large forces are applied.
The distinction between frictionless and rough is, therefore, a
matter of degree.
There are two types of friction: dry or Coulomb friction and fluid
friction. Fluid friction applies to lubricated mechanisms. The
present discussion is limited to dry friction between nonlubricated
surfaces.
 The Laws of Dry Friction.
Coefficients of Friction
Block of weight W placed on horizontal surface. Forces acting on
block are its weight and reaction of surface N.

Small horizontal force P applied to block. For block to remain

stationary, in equilibrium, a horizontal component F of the surface
reaction is required. F is a static-friction force.
 As P increases, the static-friction force F increases as well until it
reaches a maximum value Fm.

Fm s N
s = coefficient of static friction

Further increase in P causes the block to begin to move as F drops

to a smaller kinetic-friction force Fk.
Fk k N
k = coefficient of kinetic or dynamic friction
k 0.75 s
 Maximum static-friction force and kinetic-friction force are:

- proportional to normal force

- dependent on type and condition of contact surfaces

- independent of contact area

 Four situations can occur when a rigid body is in contact with a
horizontal surface:

No
friction, No Motion Motion,
(Px = 0) motion, impending, (Px > Fm)
(Px < Fm) (Px = Fm)
 It is sometimes convenient to replace normal force N and friction
force F by their resultant R:

No No Motion Motio
friction motion n
Fm s N impending Fk k N
tan s tan k
N N N N
tan s s tan k k
 Angles of Friction
Consider block of weight W resting on board with variable inclination
angle .
No friction No motion

Motion Motion
impending
 Problems Involving Dry Friction : 3 cases

Case I Case II Case III

All applied forces known All applied forces known Coefficient of static
Coefficient of static Motion is impending friction is known
friction is known Motion is impending
Determine value of
Determine whether body coefficient of static Determine magnitude
will remain at rest or friction. or direction of one of
slide the applied forces
1) The 85 N force is applied to the 200 N crate, which is stationary
before the force is applied. Determine the magnitude and direction of
the frictional force F exerted by the horizontal force on the crate
2) Determine the minimum horizontal force P required to hold the
crate from sliding down the plane. The crate has a mass of 50 kg and
the coefficient of static friction between the crate and the plane is s =
0.25.

Ans: P = 140 N, N = 495 N

3) Determine the minimum force P required to push the crate up the
plane. The crate has a mass of 50 kg and the coefficient of static
friction between the crate and the plane is ms = 0.25.

Ans: P = 474 N, N = 662 N

4) Determine whether the 10-kg block shown is in equilibrium, and
find the magnitude and direction of the friction force when P = 40 N
and = 20.
5) Knowing that = 25, determine the range of values of P for which
equilibrium is maintained.
6) Knowing that the coefficient of static friction between the 20-kg
block and the incline is 0.30, determine the smallest value of for
which the block is in equilibrium.
7) Determine the range of values which the mass mo may have so that
the 100 kg block shown in the figure will neither start moving up the
plane nor slip down the plane. the coefficient of static friction for the
contact surfaces is 0.30

mo max = 62.4 kg
mo min = 6.10 kg
8) Knowing that WA = 25 N and = 300, determine (a) the smallest

value of WB for which the system is in equilibrium, (b) the largest

value of WB = for which the system is in equilibrium

9) The block A shown in Fig. 5.23 weighs 2000 N. The cord attached
to if passes over a frictionless pulley and supports a weight equal to
800 N. The value of coefficient friction between A and the horizontal
plane is 0.35. Determine the horizontal force P
(i) If the motion is impending towards the left. (ii) if the motion is
impending towards the right.

[Ans. (i) 1252.82 N (ii) 132.82 N ]

10) What is the value of P in the system shown in Fig. to cause the
motion to impend? Assume the pulley is smooth and coefficient of
friction between the other contact surfaces is 0.2.

P min = 853.5 N
11) Two identical planes AC and BC, inclined at 60 and 30 to the horizontal meet
at C as shown in Fig. A load of 1000 N rests on the inclined plane BC and is tied by
a rope passing over a pulley to a block weighing W Newton and resting on the
plane AC. If the coefficient of friction between the load and the plane BC is 0.28
and that between the block and the plane AC is 0.20, find the least and greatest
values of W for the equilibrium of the system.

W min = 266.6 N
W max = 969.3 N
11) The coefficient of static friction between the 150-kg crate and the
ground is s = 0.3, while the coefficient of static friction between the
80-kg mans shoes and the ground is s = 0.4 . Determine if the man
can move the crate.
13) The coefficients of friction are s = 0.40 and k = 0.30 between all
surfaces of contact. Determine the force P for which motion of the 30-
kg block is impending if cable AB is (a) attached as shown, (b) is
removed.

With cable P = 275 N

Without cable P = 196.2 N

14) The 16 N block A is attached to link AC and rests on the 24 N
block B. Knowing that the coefficient of static friction is 0.20 between
all surfaces of contact and neglecting the mass of the link, determine
the value of for which motion of block B is impending.
15) Block A weighing 1000 N rests over a block B which weighs 2000
N as shown in the figure 4. Block A is tied to a wall with a horizontal
string. If the coefficient of friction between A and B is 1/4, and
between B and the floor is 1/3, what value of force P is required to
create a impending motion if (a) P is horizontal, (b) P acts 30 0 upwards
to horizontal ?
16) What should be the value of in Fig. which will make the motion
of 900 N block down the plane to impend? The coefficient of friction
for all contact surfaces is 1/3.

= 29.050
17) Crates A and B weigh 200 N and 150 N, respectively. They are
connected together with a cable and placed on the inclined plane. If
the angle is gradually increased, determine when the crates begin
to slide. The coefficients of static friction between the crates and the
plane are A = 0.25 and B = 0.35.
18) Two blocks A and B have a weight of 10 N and 6 N, respectively.
They are resting on the incline for which the coefficients of static
friction are A = 0.15 and B = 0.25. Determine the incline angle for
which both blocks begin to slide. Also find the required stretch or
compression in the connecting spring for this to occur. The spring has
a stiffness of
k = 2 N/m
19) A man attempts to support a stack of books horizontally by
applying a compressive force of F = 120 N to the ends of the stack
with his hands. If each book has a mass of 0.95 kg, determine the
greatest number of books that can be supported in the stack. The
coefficient of static friction between the mans hands and a book
is(s)h = 0.6 and between any two books (s)b = 0.4.
 Wedges
Wedges - simple machines used to raise heavy loads.

Force required to lift block is significantly less than block

weight.
Friction prevents wedge from sliding out.

Want to find minimum force P to raise block.

If the force P is large enough to push the wedge forward, then the block
will rise and the following is an appropriate free-body diagram. Note
that for the wedge to move one needs to have slip on all three surfaces.
The direction of the friction force on each surface will oppose the
slipping.
If the force P is not large enough to hold the top block from coming
down, then the wedge will be pushed to the left and the appropriate
free-body diagram is the following. Note that the only change is the
direction of the frictional forces. A similar analysis to the above yield
the solution to the problem.
20) Determine the force P required to start the movement of the wedge
as shown in Fig. The angle of friction for all surfaces of contact is 15.
21) Determine the smallest horizontal force P required to pull out
wedge A. The crate has a weight of 300 N and the coefficient of static
friction at all contacting surfaces is s = 0.3.Neglect the weight of the
wedge.

Ans: P = 90.7 N
22) Determine the smallest horizontal force P required to lift the 200-
kg crate. The coefficient of static friction at all contacting surfaces is
s = 0.3 . Neglect the mass of the wedge.

Ans : P = 1978.37 N
23) If the spring is compressed a distance and the coefficient of static friction
between the tapered stub S and the slider A is sA, determine the horizontal force P
needed to move the slider forward. The stub is free to move without friction within
the fixed collar C. The coefficient of static friction between A and surface B is AB.
Neglect the weights of the slider and stub.
Given: = 60 mm, sA = 0.5, AB = 0.4, k = 300 N-m, = 300
24) Determine the force P needed to lift the load of weight W. Smooth
rollers are placed between the wedges. The coefficient of static
friction between A and C and between B and D is s. Neglect the

weight of each wedge. Given: = 100 , W = 100 N, s = 0.3

25) Determine the smallest horizontal force P required to lift the 100-
kg cylinder. The coefficients of static friction at the contact points A
and B are (s)A = 0.6 and (s)B = 0.2, respectively; and the coefficient

of static friction between the wedge and the ground is s = 0.3.

27) A block weighing 160 kN is to be raised by means of the wedges A
and B as shown in Fig. Find the value of force P for impending motion
of block C upwards, if coefficient of friction is 0.25 for all contact
surfaces. The self weight of wedges may be neglected.
28) The 80 kg man climbs up the ladder and stops at the position
shown after he senses that the ladder is on the verge of slipping.
Determine the inclination of the ladder if the coefficient of static
friction between the friction pad A and the ground is s = 0.4 . Assume
the wall at B is smooth. The center of gravity for the man is at G.
Neglect the weight of the ladder.
29)The 80 kg man climbs up the ladder and stops at the position
shown after he senses that the ladder is on the verge of slipping.
Determine the coefficient of static friction between the friction pad at
A and ground if the inclination of the ladder is = 600 and the wall at
B is smooth. The center of gravity for the man is at G. Neglect the
weight of the ladder
30) The uniform thin pole has a weight of 30 kg and a length of 8 m. If
it is placed against the smooth wall and on the rough floor in the
position, d = 10 m will it remain in this position when it is released?
The coefficient of static friction is s = 0.3

15
m
31) The uniform pole has a weight of 30 lb and a length of 8 m .
Determine the maximum distance d it can be placed from the smooth
wall and not slip. The coefficient of static friction between the floor
and the pole is s = 0.3.
32) The uniform 10 kg ladder rests on the rough floor for which the
coefficient of static friction is s = 0.8 and against the smooth wall at
B. Determine the horizontal force P the man must exert on the ladder
in order to cause it to move.
 Unit III
Centroids and Centers
of Gravity
 Introduction
The earth exerts a gravitational force on each of the particles
forming a body. These forces can be replace by a single equivalent
force equal to the weight of the body and applied at the center of
gravity for the body

The centroid of an area is analogous to the center of gravity of a

body. The concept of the first moment of an area is used to locate
the centroid.
 Difference between Centroid, Center of mass and Center
of gravity
There are two major differences between "center of gravity" and
"center of mass":

1) The term Center of gravity applies to the bodies with mass and
weight, while the term Centroid applies to plan areas.

2) Center of gravity of a body is the point through which the

resultant gravitational force (weight) of the body acts for any
orientation of the body while centroid is the point in a plane area
such that the moment of the area, about any axis, through that point
is zero.
Centroid is a purely mathematical, geometric concept- the geometric
center of a body. It can be calculated as the center of mass of an
object with constant density.

Center of mass and center of gravity are the same- although the
concepts are slightly different: the concept "center of gravity" strictly
speaking requires, a uniform gravitational field while "center of
mass" does not. But they are exactly the same point on an object.
 Center of Gravity of a Two- Dimensional Body
Center of gravity of a plate

M y x W xW
x dW
M y yW y W W dW
y dW
 Centroids and First Moments of Areas
Centroid of an area

In case of flat homogenous plate of uniform thickness, magnitude W

of the weight of an element is given by

W tA
Weight W of the entire plate is given by

W tA
Substitute into moment equations and divide by t

M y
: xA x Ax
1 1 2
A 2
........... x A
n n

M x
:yA y Ay
1 1 2
A 2
............ y A
n n

x A xdA

y A ydA
 First Moment of Areas and Lines

x A x dA Q y
first moment w.r .t. y
yA y dA Qx
first moment w.r .t. x
Coordinates of the centroids of an area can be obtained by dividing
the first moment of that area by the area itself

If the centroid of the area is located on a coordinate axis, the first

moment of the area with respect to that axis is zero
 An area is symmetric with respect to an axis BB if for every point P
there exists a point P such that PP is perpendicular to BB and is
divided into two equal parts by BB.

The first moment of an area with respect to a line of symmetry is

zero.

If an area possesses a line of symmetry, its centroid lies on that axis

 If an area possesses two lines of symmetry, its centroid lies at their
intersection.

An area is symmetric with respect to a center O if for every

element dA at (x,y) there exists an area dA of equal area at (-x,-y).

The centroid of the area coincides with the center of symmetry.

Centroids of Common Shapes of Areas
 Composite Plates and Areas
Composite plates
Composite area

X A xA
Y A yA

If the plate is homogenous and of uniform thickness, the center of

gravity coincides with the centroid C of its area
 First moments of areas, like moments
Composite Bodies
of forces, can be positive or negative.
For example: an area whose centroid is
located to the left of Y axis will have a
negative first moment with respect to
that axis.
Also, the area of a hole should be
assigned a negative sign.

x A x A
A1 Semicircle - + -
A2 Full rectangle + + +
A3 Circular hole + - -
 Problem Locate the centroid of the plane area shown.

Several points should be emphasized when

solving these types of problems.

1. Decide how to construct the given area from common shapes.

2. It is strongly recommended that you construct a table containing

areas or length and the respective coordinates of the centroids.

3. When possible, use symmetry to help locate the centroid.

Construct a table containing areas and respective
coordinates of the centroids.
Then XA = xA
X (1740) = 28,200
orX = 16.21 mm

and YA = yA
Y (1740) = 55,440
orY = 31.9 mm
For the plane area shown, determine (a) the first moments with respect
to the x and y axes, (b) the location of centroid
Since the wire is homogeneous, its center of gravity (G) coincides
with the centroid (C) of the corresponding line .

With origin at A, we determine the centroid of each line segment and

compute the first moments with respect to the coordinate axes.
Segment L, cm X, cm Y, cm XL, cm 2 YL, cm 2

AB 24 12 0 288 0

BC 26 12 5 312 130

CA 10 0 5 0 50

L = 60 XL = YL =
600 180

XL = SXL: X (60 in) = 600 in2, . X = 10 cm

YL = SYL: Y (60 in) = 180 in2, ..Y = 3 cm
Locate the centroid of the plane area shown.

Ans: X = 8.22 cm, Y = 4 cm

Locate the centroid of the plane area shown.

Ans: X = 140.0 mm, Y = 165.0 mm

Locate the centroid of the plane area shown.

Ans: X = 18.02 mm, Y = 84.9 mm

Determine the centroid of the area shown in Fig. with respect to the
axis shown

Ans: x = 2.995ym, =
1.890m
Locate the centroid of the plane area shown.

Ans: X = 8.32 cm, Y = 3.61 cm

Locate the centroid of the plane area shown.

Ans: X= - 3.17 cm, Y = 0.668 cm

The gravity wall is made of concrete. Determine the location (x, y) of
the center of mass G for the wall.

Ans: X= 2.22 m, Y = 1.41 m

Locate the centroid (x, y) of the composite area

Ans: X = 4.83 in, Y = 2.56 in

 Determination of Centroids by Integration

x A xdA x dxdy xel dA

yA ydA y dxdy yel dA

Double integration to find the first moment may be avoided by

defining dA as a thin rectangle or strip.

Q y
x A xel dA

x ydx

Q x
yA yel dA
y
ydx
2
 x A xel dA
x A xel dA
2r 1 2
ax cos r d
a x dx 3 2
2
yA yel dA
yA yel dA
y a x dx
2r 1 2
sin r d
3 2
Determine by direct integration the location of the centroid of a
parabolic spandrel.
Determine by direct integration the centroid of the area shown.
Express your answer in terms of a and h.
Determine by direct integration the centroid of the area shown.
Express your answer in terms of a and b.
Determine by direct integration the centroid of the area shown.
Express your answer in terms of a and b.
Determine by direct integration the centroid of the area shown.
 Theorems of Pappus-Guldinus
Surface of revolution is generated by rotating a plane curve about a
fixed axis.

Theorem I: Area of a surface of revolution is equal to the length of

the generating curve times the distance traveled by the centroid
through the rotation.

A 2 yL
 Body of revolution is generated by rotating a plane area about a
fixed axis.

Theorem II: Volume of a body of revolution is equal to the

generating area times the distance traveled by the centroid through
the rotation.

V 2 y A
For both the theorems of Pappus and Guldinus to be valid, the axis
of rotation should not intersect the generating curves or generating
areas, and if it did, the two sections on the either side of the axis
would generate the areas having opposite signs, and then the theorem
will not be applicable.
The outside diameter of a pulley is 0.8 m, and the cross section of its
rim is as shown. Knowing that the pulley is made of steel and that the
density of steel is = 7.85 103 kg/m3, determine the mass and the
weight of the rim.

Ans: m = 60 kg, W = 589 N

Using the theorems of Pappus-Guldinus, determine (a) the centroid of
a semicircular area, (b) the centroid of a semicircular arc.
Determine the surface area and volume of the full solid in Fig.

Ans: Area = 143 in2, Volume = 47.3 in3

Determine the surface area and volume of the solid formed by
revolving the shaded area 360 about the z axis.

Ans: Area = 141 in2, Volume = 49.1 in3

Determine the volume of the solid formed by revolving the shaded
area 360 about the z axis.

Ans: Volume = 0.0486 m3

Determine the surface area and volume of the solid formed by
revolving the shaded area 360 about the z axis.

Ans: Area = 1.06 m2, Volume = 0.0376 m3

The process tank is used to store liquids during manufacturing.
Estimate both the volume of the tank and its surface area. The tank
has a flat top and a thin wall.

Ans: V= 207 m3, A = 118 m2

Moment of Inertia of an Area
 Moment of Inertia of an Area by Integration
Second moments or moments of inertia of an area with respect to the
x and y axes,

I x y 2 dA I y x 2 dA

Integrals Ix and Iy are called as rectangular moments of inertia of area A

 Evaluation of the integrals is simplified by choosing dA to be a thin
strip parallel to one of the coordinate axes.
Moment of inertia of a Rectangular Area,

h
I x y 2 dA y 2bdy 13 bh3
0
Computing the Ix and Iy using the same Elemental Strip

Set b = dx and h = y

dI x 13 y 3 dx dI y x 2 dA x 2 y dx
 Polar Moment of Inertia
The polar moment of inertia is an important parameter in problems
involving torsion of cylindrical shafts and rotations of slabs.

J 0 r 2 dA

The polar moment of inertia is related to the rectangular moments of

inertia,

J 0 r 2 dA x 2 y 2 dA x 2 dA y 2 dA

J 0
Iy Ix
 Radius of Gyration of an Area
Consider area A with moment of inertia Ix. Imagine that the area is

concentrated in a thin strip parallel to the x axis with equivalent Ix.

Ix
Ix k x2 A kx
A

kx = radius of gyration with respect to the x axis

Similarly,

Iy
Iy k A
2
y ky
A

JO
J O k A kO
2
O
A

2 2 2
kO kx ky
For the rectangle shown in Fig. Compute the radius of gyration kx with
respect to its base
 Determine the moment of inertia of a triangle
with respect to its base.

Solution: A differential strip parallel to the x axis is chosen for dA.

dI x y 2 dA dA l dy
For similar triangles,
l h y h y h y
l b dA b dy
b h h h
Integrating dIx from y = 0 to y = h,

h
2 h y
2 bh 2
I x y dA y b dy hy y 3 dy
0 h h0
4 h bh 3
b y y 3
I x
h 12
h 3 4
0
(a)Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area shown with
respect to each of the coordinate axes.
(b) Using the results of part a, determine the radius of gyration of the
shaded area with respect to each of the coordinate axes.
Determine by direct integration the moment of inertia of the shaded
area with respect to the x and y axis.

Ix = 5/17 ab3 , Iy = 5/33 a3b

Determine the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration of the
shaded area shown with respect to the x and y axis.
Determine the radius of gyration about y axis of the shaded area
shown.

Ans: ky = 53.1 mm
Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area about y axis

Ans: Iy = 27.4 104 mm4

 Parallel Axis Theorem
Consider moment of inertia I of an area A with respect to the axis AA

2
I y dA

The axis BB passes through the area centroid and is called a

centroidal axis.
I y 2 dA y d 2 dA
y 2 dA 2d y dA d 2 dA

I I Ad 2 parallel axis theorem

Substituting k2A for I and k2A for I, the theorem can also be expressed
as

A similar theorem can be used to relate the polar moment of inertia J O

of an area about a point O to the polar moment of inertia J C of the

same area about its centroid C. if d be the distance between O and C,
then.

or
Moments of Inertia of Composite Areas
Moment of inertia IT of a circular area with respect to a tangent to the
circle,

I T I Ad 2 14 r 4 r 2 r 2

54 r 4

Moment of inertia of a triangle with respect to a centroidal axis,

I AA I BB Ad 2

I BB I AA Ad 2 12
1 bh3 1 bh 1 h
2 3
2
1 bh 3
36
Calculate the moment of inertia about x axis for the area shown.

Ans : Ix = 5.76 106 mm4

Find the moment of inertia about x axis of the semicircular area.

Ans: Ix = 36.4 104 mm4

Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area with respect to the
x axis.
Determine the moment of inertia of the Z section about its centroidal
x0 and y0 axis

I x = 22.6 106 mm4, Iy = 9.81 106 mm4

Determine the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration of the
shaded area with respect to the x axis and y axis.

Ans: Ix = 614.2 103 mm4, Kx = 19 mm

Iy = 1.894 106 mm4, Ky = 33.4 mm
Calculate the moment of inertia and radius of gyration about x- axis
for the area shown.

Ans: Ix = 4.05 106 mm4, k = 34 mm

Determine the moment of inertia of the composite area about the x
and y axis

Ans: Iy = 10.3 109 mm4

Calculate the moment of inertia of the cross section of the beam about
its centroidal x axis

Ans: Ix = 10.76 106 mm4

Determine the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration of the
shaded area with respect to the x axis.
Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area shown with respect
to (a) point O, (b) the centroid of the area.

Ans: a) 11.57 106 mm4, b) 7.81 106 mm4

Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area shown with respect
to (a) point O, (b) the centroid of the area.
Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area shown with respect
to (a) point O, (b) the centroid of the area.
Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area shown with respect
to (a) point O, (b) the centroid of the area.
Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area shown with respect
to (a) point O, (b) the centroid of the area.
 Product of Inertia

Product of Inertia: I xy xy dA

When the x axis, the y axis, or both are an axis of

symmetry, the product of inertia is zero.

Parallel axis theorem for products of inertia:

I xy I x ' y ' x yA
If either of the centroidal axes of a component area is an axis of
symmetry for that area the product of inertia of Ixy for that area is

zero. Thus Ixy is zero for the component areas such as circles,
semicircles, rectangles which possess an axis of symmetry parallel to
one of the coordinate axis.
Principal Axes and Principal Moments of Inertia
2 2
Given I x y dA I y x dA
I xy xy dA

we wish to determine moments

and product of inertia with
respect to new axes x and y.

Note:
x x cos y sin
y y cos x sin
 The change of axes yields
Ix Iy Ix Iy
I x cos 2 I xy sin 2
2 2
Ix Iy Ix Iy
I y cos 2 I xy sin 2
2 2
Ix Iy
I xy sin 2 I xy cos 2
2
The angle which makes Ix and Iy maximum or minimum may be
determine by setting the derivative of either I x or Iy with respect to
equal to 0

Denoting this by critical angle by m gives

2 I xy
tan 2 m
I y
Ix
Expressions for principle moment of inertia
2
Ix Iy Ix Iy 2
I max, min I xy
2 2
Ix Iy Ix Iy
I x cos 2 I xy sin 2
2 2
Ix Iy Ix Iy
I y cos 2 I xy sin 2
2 2
Ix Iy
I xy sin 2 I xy cos 2
2
2 I xy
tan 2 m
I y
Ix

Anticlockwise direction : is positive

Clockwise direction : is negative

Using the parallel-axis theorem, determine the product of inertia of the
area shown with respect to the centroidal x and y axes.
Determine the moments of inertia and the product of inertia of the area
with respect to new centroidal axes obtained by rotating the x and y
axes through 30o clockwise.

Ans: Ixy = 138.2 106 mm4, Ix= 323.27 106 mm4, Iy = 165.29 106 mm4
For the same area determine the orientation of the principal axis at
origin and corresponding values of moment of inertia

m = 29.70 & 119.740 , Imax = 405 106 mm4, Imin = 83.9 106 mm4
Using the parallel-axis theorem, determine the product of inertia of the area shown with
respect to the centroidal x and y axes.
Determine the moments of inertia and the product of inertia of the area with respect to
new centroidal axes obtained by rotating the x and y axes through 60 o
counterclockwise.

Ans: Ixy = 1.573 106 mm4, I x = 4.608 106 mm4, Iy = 3.825 106mm4, Ixy = -3.825 106 mm4
For the section shown, the moments of inertia with respect to the x and
y axes have been computed and are known to be
Ix = 5 10.38 in4 Iy = 5 6.97 in4
Determine (a) the orientation of the principal axes of the section about
O,
(b) the values of the principal moments of inertia of the section about
O.

Ans: m = 37.70 & 127.70 , I max = 15.45 in4, Imin = 1.897 in4
 Mohrs Circle for Moments and Products of Inertia
Mohrs circle may be used to graphically or analytically determine
the moments and product of inertia for any other rectangular axes
including the principal axes and principal moments and products of
inertia.
For the section shown, the moments and product of inertia with respect to the x and
y axes are known to be Ix = 7.20106 mm4 Iy = 2.59106 mm4 Ixy = -2.54106 mm4
Using Mohrs circle, determine (a) the principal axes of the section about O,
(b) the values of the principal moments of inertia of the section about O,
(c) the moments and product of inertia of the section with respect to the x and y
axes which form an angle of 60 with the x and y axes.
Using Mohrs circle, determine the moments of inertia and the product
of inertia of the L5 3 1/2 -in. angle cross section , respect to new
centroidal axes obtained by rotating the x and y axes through 30o
counterclockwise.

Ix = 9.45 in4 , Iy = 2.58 in4

Ixy = 2.8125 in4

Using Mohrs circle, determine the moments of inertia and the product
of inertia of the area with respect to new centroidal axes obtained by
rotating the x and y axes through 30o clockwise.

I x = 162.86 106 mm4, I y = 325.72 106 mm4, Ixy = 138.24 106 mm4
 Moment of Inertia of a Mass
Angular acceleration about the axis AA of the
small mass m due to the application of a couple
is proportional to r2m.
r2 m = moment of inertia of the mass m with
respect to the axis AA
For a body of mass m the resistance to rotation about the axis AA is

I r12 m r22 m r32 m

r 2 dm mass moment of inertia
The radius of gyration for a
concentrated mass with equivalent
mass moment of inertia is
2 I
I k m k
m
 Moment of inertia with respect to the y
coordinate axis is

I y r 2 dm z 2 x 2 dm

Similarly, for the moment of inertia with

respect to the x and z axes,

I x y 2 z 2 dm
I z x 2 y 2 dm

In SI units:
I r 2 dm kg m 2
 For the rectangular axes with origin at O and parallel centroidal axes,

I x y 2 z 2 dm y y z z dm
2 2

y2 z 2 dm 2 y ydm 2 z z dm y 2 z 2 dm

I x I x m y 2 z 2
I y I y m z 2 x 2
I z I z m x 2 y 2
Generalizing for any axis AA and a parallel
centroidal axis,
I I md 2
2 2 2
k k d
 Moments of Inertia of Thin Plates
For a thin plate of uniform thickness t and homogeneous material of
density . The mass moment of inertia with respect to axis AA
contained in the plate is

I AA ,mass r dm
2

Since, dm tdA
t r 2 dA
t I AA,area
Similarly, for perpendicular axis BB which is also contained in the
plate,
I BB ,mass t I BB,area

For the axis CC which is perpendicular to the plate,

I CC,ma ss t J C ,area t I AA,area I BB,area

I AA I BB
 For the principal centroidal axes on a rectangular plate,

I AA t I AA,area t 121 a 3b 121 ma2

I BB t I BB,area t 12
1 ab3 1 mb 2
12

I CC I AA,mass I BB,mass 12 1 m a 2 b 2

For centroidal axes on a circular plate,

I AA I BB t I AA,area t 14 r 4 14 mr 2

I CC I AA I BB 12 mr 2
A thin semicircular plate has a radius a and a mass m. Determine the
mass moment of inertia of the plate with respect to (a) the centroidal
axis BB, (b) the centroidal axis CC that is perpendicular to the plate.
The thin circular ring shown was cut from a thin, uniform plate.
Denoting the mass of the ring by m, determine its mass moment of
inertia with respect to (a) the centroidal axis AA of the ring, (b) the
centroidal axis CC that is perpendicular to the plane of the ring
A thin steel plate which is 4 mm thick is cut and bent to form the
machine part shown. Knowing that the density of steel is 7850 kg/m3,
determine the moments of inertia of the machine part with respect to the
coordinate axes.
Dynamics
 Displacement

Kinematics velocity

Acceleration
Dynamics

Force/torque
Kinetics
Energy/momentum
 Kinematics of particles

Rectilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a

particle as it moves along a straight line.

Curvilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a

particle as it moves along a curved line in two or three dimensions.
 Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
Particle moving along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear
motion.

Position coordinate of a particle is defined by positive or negative

distance of particle from a fixed origin on the line.
 The motion of a particle is known if the position coordinate for
particle is known for every value of time t. Motion of the particle
may be expressed in the form of a function, e.g.,

x 6t 2 t 3
or in the form of a graph x vs. t.
 Consider particle which occupies position P at time t and P at t + t,

x
Average velocity
t
x
Instantaneous velocity v lim
t 0 t
Instantaneous velocity may be positive or negative. Magnitude of
velocity is referred to as particle speed.

e.g., x 6t 2 t 3
x dx
v lim dx
t 0 t dt v 12t 3t 2
dt
 Consider particle with velocity v at time t and v at t +t,

v
Instantaneous acceleration a lim
t 0 t

Instantaneous acceleration may be: v dv d 2 x

- positive: increasing positive velocity a lim 2
t 0 t dt dt
-
or decreasing negative velocity
e.g. v 12t 3t 2
- negative: decreasing positive velocity
dv
or increasing negative velocity a 12 6t
dt
The term deceleration is sometimes used to refer to a when the speed
of the particle (i.e., the magnitude of v) decreases; the particle is then
moving more slowly
EXAMPLE: Consider a particle moving in a straight line, and assume
that its position is defined by the equation
x 6t 2 t 3

dx
v 12t 3t 2
dt

dv d 2 x
a 2 12 6t
dt dt

at t = 0, x = 0, v = 0, a = 12 m/s2

at t = 2 s, x = 16 m, v = vmax = 12 m/s, a = 0

at t = 4 s, x = xmax = 32 m, v = 0, a = -12 m/s2

at t = 6 s, x = 0, v = -36 m/s, a = 24 m/s2

 Determination of the Motion of a Particle
motion of a particle is known if position is known for all time t.

Typically, conditions of motion are specified by the type of

acceleration experienced by the particle. Determination of velocity
and position requires two successive integrations.

Three classes of motion may be defined for:

- acceleration given as a function of time, a = f(t)

- acceleration given as a function of position, a = f(x)

- acceleration given as a function of velocity, a = f(v)

 Acceleration given as a function of time, a = f(t):
v t t t
dv
a f t dv f t dt dv f t dt v t v0 f t dt
dt v0 0 0
x t t t
dx
v t dx v t dt dx v t dt x t x0 v t dt
dt x0 0 0

Acceleration given as a function of position, a = f(x):

dx dx dv dv
v or dt a or a v f x
dt v dt dx
v x x x
v dv f x dx v dv f x dx 1 v x 2
2
12 v02 f x dx
v0 x0 x0
 Acceleration given as a function of velocity, a = f(v):

v t t
dv dv dv
a f v dt f v dt
dt f v v 0
0
v t
dv
f v t
v 0
x t v t
dv v dv v dv
v a f v dx dx f v
dx f v x v
0 0
v t
v dv
x t x0
v0 f v
The position of a particle which moves along a straight line is defined by the
relation , x t 3 6t 2 15t 40 Determine,
(a) the time at which the velocity will be zero,
(b) the position and distance traveled by the particle at that time,
(c) the acceleration of the particle at that time,
(d) the distance traveled by the particle from t = 4 s to t = 6 s.
A ball is tossed with a velocity of 10 m/s directed vertically upward from a window
located 20 m above the ground. Knowing that the acceleration of the ball is
constant and equal to 9.81 m/s2 downward, determine
(a) The velocity v and elevation y of the ball above the ground at any time t,
(b) the highest elevation reached by the ball and the corresponding value of t,
(c) the time when the ball will hit the ground and the corresponding velocity.
Draw the vt and yt curves.
The acceleration of a particle is defined by the relation a = 9 3t 2. The
particle starts at t = 0 with v = 0 and x = 5 m . Determine
(a) the time when the velocity is again zero,
(b) the position and velocity when t = 4 s,
(c) the total distance traveled by the particle from t = 0 to t = 4 s.
Point A oscillates with an acceleration a = 40 160x, where a and x
are expressed in m/s2 and meters, respectively. The magnitude of the
velocity is 0.3 m/s when x = 0.4 m. Determine
(a) the maximum velocity of A,
(b) the two positions at which the velocity of A is zero.
The acceleration of point A is defined by the relation
a = 600x (1 + kx2), where a and x are expressed in m/s2 and meters,
respectively, and k is a constant. Knowing that the velocity of A is 7.5
m/s when x = 0 and 15 m/s when x = 0.45 m, determine the value of k.
 Uniform Rectilinear Motion
For particle in uniform rectilinear motion, the acceleration is zero and
the velocity is constant.

dx
v constant
dt
x t
dx v dt
x0 0
x x0 vt
x x0 vt

This equation is used only if the velocity of the particle is known to be constant
 Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
For particle in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the
acceleration of the particle is constant.
v t
dv
a constant dv a dt v v0 at
dt v0 0
v v0 at
x t
dx
dt
v0 at dx v0 at dt x x0 v0 t 12 at 2
x0 0

x x0 v0 t 12 at 2

v 2 v02 a x x0
v x
dv 1
v a constant v dv a dx 2
dx v0 x0

v 2 v02 2a x x0
 Motion of Several Particles: Relative Motion
For particles moving along the same line, time should be recorded
from the same starting instant and displacements should be
measured from the same origin in the same direction.

xB A xB x A relative position of B with respect to A

xB x A xB A
v B A v B v A relative velocity of B with respect to A
vB v A vB A aB A aB a A relative acceleration of B with respect to A

aB a A aB A
Ball thrown vertically from 12 m level in elevator shaft with initial
velocity of 18 m/s. At same instant, open-platform elevator passes 5
m level moving upward at 2 m/s. Determine

(a) when and where ball hits elevator and (b) relative velocity of ball
and elevator at contact
Car A starts from O and accelerates at the constant rate of 0.75 m/s 2.
A short time later it is passed by bus B which is traveling in the
opposite direction at a constant speed of 6 m/s. Knowing that bus B
passes point O 20 s after car A started from there, determine when
and where the vehicles passed each other.
Cars A and B are traveling in adjacent highway lanes and at t = 0 have
the positions and speeds shown. Knowing that car A has a constant
acceleration of 0.6 m/s2 and that B has a constant deceleration of 0.4
m/s2, determine (a) when and where A will overtake B, (b) the speed
of each car at that time.
 Motion of Several Particles: Dependent Motion
Position of a particle may depend on position of one or more other
particles.

Position of block B depends on position of

block A. Since rope is of constant length, it
follows that sum of lengths of segments must
be constant.

x A 2 x B constant (one degree of freedom)

 Positions of three blocks are dependent.

2 x A 2 x B xC constant (two degrees of

freedom)

For linearly related positions, similar

relations hold between velocities and
accelerations.

dx A dxB dxC
2 2 0 or 2v A 2v B vC 0
dt dt dt
dv A dvB dvC
2 2 0 or 2a A 2a B aC 0
dt dt dt
Collar A and block B are connected by a cable passing over three pulley C, D, and
E as shown. Pulleys C and E are fixed, while D is attached to a collar which is
pulled downward with a constant velocity of 75mm/s. At t = 0, collar A starts
moving downward from position K with a constant acceleration and no initial
velocity. Knowing that the velocity of collar A is 300 mm/s as it passes through
point L, determine the change in elevation, the velocity, and the acceleration of
block B when collar A passes through L.
Kinetics of Particles:
Newtons Second Law
 Newtons Second Law of Motion
If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle will
have an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of resultant and
in the direction of the resultant.
r r
F ma
If particle is subjected to several forces:
r r
F ma
We must use a Newtonian frame of
reference, i.e., one that is not accelerating or
rotating.

If no force acts on particle, particle will not accelerate, i.e., it will

remain stationary or continue on a straight line at constant velocity.
 Linear Momentum of a Particle
r r
r dv
F ma m dt
r d r
d
mv
dt dt
L
r r
L mv Linear momentum
Sum of forces = rate of change of linear momentum
r r&
F L
Principle of conservation of linear momentum
r
If F 0 linear momentum is constant
 ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A PARTICLE.

moment of momentum, or the angular momentum

HO is a vector perpendicular to the

plane containing r and mv and of
magnitude

is the angle between r and mv

SI unit: (m)(kg . m/s) = kg . m2/s

Equations of Motion

Newtons second law F ma

Convenient to resolve into components:

Fx i Fy j Fz k m ax i a y j az k
F x max F
y ma y F z maz
F x mx F
y my F z mz

For tangential and normal components:

F t mat F n man
dv v2
F t m dt F n m
 Dynamic Equilibrium
Alternate expression of Newtons law:
r r
F ma 0
r
ma inertia vector

If we include inertia vector, the system of forces acting on particle is

equivalent to zero. The particle is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.

Inertia vectors are often called inertia

forces as they measure the resistance that
particles offer to changes in motion.
An 80-kg block rests on a horizontal plane. Find the magnitude of the
force P required to give the block an acceleration of 2.5 m/s 2 to the
right. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and plane
is mk = 0.25.
The two blocks shown start from rest. The horizontal plane and the
pulley are frictionless, and the pulley is assumed to be of negligible
mass. Determine the acceleration of each block and the tension in
the cord.
The 40 N block starts from rest and moves upward when constant
forces of 10 N and 20 N are applied to supporting ropes. Neglecting
the masses of the pulleys and the effect of friction, determine the
speed of the block after it has moved 1.5 m.
The 5.4 kg block B starts from rest and slides on the 13.6 kg wedge
A, which is supported by a horizontal surface. Neglecting friction,
determine (a) the acceleration of the wedge, and (b) the acceleration
of the block relative to the wedge.
 Work of Force

dU F dr
dU Fds cos


dU Fx i Fy j Fz k d x i d y j d z k
Fx dx Fy dy Fz dz
 A2

U12 F dr
A1
s2 s2

U12 F cos ds Ft ds
s1 s1
A2

U12 F dx F dy F dz
A1
x y z
 Work of a Constant Force in Rectilinear Motion

U 1 2 F cos x

where = angle the force forms with direction of motion

x = displacement from A1 to A2
 Work of the Force of Gravity

Fx=0, Fy = -W, and Fz = 0,

dU Wdy
y2

U12 Wdy Wy 1 Wy 2
y1

U12 W ( y2 y1 ) Wy

When y is negative (moves down), the work is positive

Work of the Force Exerted by a Spring

F kx
dU Fdx kxdx
x2
1 2 1 2
U12 kxdx kx1 kx2
x1
2 2
1
U12 F1 F2 x
2
If the spring returning to the undeformed
position, then positive energy
 Kinetic Energy of a Particle
dv dv ds dv
Ft mat m m mv
dt ds dt ds
Ft ds mvdv
s2 v2
1 2 1 2
s Ft ds m v vdv 2 mv2 2 mv1
1 1

U 1 2 T2 T1
T1 U 1 2 T2
 Applications of the Principles of Work and Energy
Pendulum
T1 U12 T2
1W 2
0 Wl v2
2 g
v2 2 gl

v2 is like a free fall velocity

Advantage; 1. No need to calculate values between A1 and A2. Only
final stages are counted 2. All scalars so can be added easily 3.
Forces that do no work are ignored
Disadvantage; can not determine accelerations
An automobile weighing 17793 N is driven down a 50 incline at a
speed of 96 km/h when the brakes are applied, causing a constant total
braking force of 6672 N. Determine the distance traveled by the
automobile as it comes to a stop
Two blocks are joined by an inextensible cable as shown. If the
system is released from rest, determine the velocity of block A after it
has moved 2 m. Assume that the coefficient of kinetic friction
between block A and the plane is k = 0.25 and that the pulley is
weightless and frictionless.
A spring is used to stop a 60-kg package which is sliding on a horizontal surface.
The spring has a constant k = 20 kN/m and is held by cables so that it is initially
compressed 120 mm. Knowing that the package has a velocity of 2.5 m/s in the
position shown and that the maximum additional deflection of the spring is 40 mm,
determine
(a) the coefficient of kinetic friction between the package and the surface,
(b) the velocity of the package as it passes again through the position shown.
A 2000-kg automobile starts from rest at point A on a 6 0 incline and
coasts through a distance of 150 m to point B. The brakes are then
applied, causing the automobile to come to a stop at point C, 20 m
from B. Knowing that slipping is impending during the braking
period and neglecting air resistance and rolling resistance, determine
(a) the speed of the automobile at point B, (b) the coefficient of static
friction between the tires and the road.
Packages are thrown down an incline at A with a velocity of 1.2 m/s.
The packages slide along the surface ABC to a conveyor belt which
moves with a velocity of 2.4 m/s. Knowing that k = 0.25 between the
packages and the surface ABC, determine the distance d if the
packages are to arrive at C with a velocity of 2.4 m/s.
 Impulse and Momentum
d
F mv
dt

Fdt d mv Unit: N.s
t2

Fdt mv2 mv1
t1
t2

mv2 mv1 Fdt
t1 Linear impulse
t2

Imp 12 Fdt
t2
t2 t2 t2
Fdt i Fx dt j Fy dt k Fz dt
t1

t1 t1 t1 t1
 t2

mvx 1 Fx dt mvx 2
t1
mv1 Imp 12 mv2 t2

mv F dt mv
y 1 y y 2
t1
t2

mvz 1 Fz dt mvz 2
t1
 If multiple particles and multiple impact forces are involved

If no impact force

mv1 mv2 Boats move opposite direction each
other, velocity inversely
0 m A v ' A mB v ' B proportional to mass
 Impulsive Motion
Impulsive force: A force acting on a particle during a very short time
interval so that momentum changes

mv1 Ft mv2
Nonimpulsive force are neglected e.g; force exerted by spring or
any other force which is small as compared to impulsive force
An automobile weighing 8818.5 kg is driven down a 5 incline at a
speed of 96km/h when the brakes are applied, causing a constant total
braking force (applied by the road on the tires) of 6672 N. Determine
the time required for the automobile to come to a stop.
The initial velocity of the block in position A is 9 m/s. Knowing that
the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the plane is k
= 0.30, determine the time it takes for the block to reach B with zero
velocity, if (a) = 0, (b) = 20.
Two packages are placed on an incline as shown. The coefficients of
friction are s = 0.30 and k = 0.25 between the incline and package

A, and s = 0.20 and k = 0.15 between the incline and package B.

Knowing that the packages are in contact when released, determine
(a) the velocity of each package after 3 s,
(b) the force exerted by package A on package B.
A 4-oz baseball is pitched with a velocity of 80 ft/s toward a batter.
After the ball is hit by the bat B, it has a velocity of 120 ft/s in the
direction shown. If the bat and ball are in contact 0.015 s, determine
the average impulsive force exerted on the ball during the impact.

mv1 Imp 12 mv2
mv1 Fx t mv2 cos 400
4
80 Fx 0.015 m120 cos 40 0
16 * 32.2
Fx 89.0lb
0 Fy t mv2 sin 400
Fy 39.9lb
F 97.524.20
A 10-kg package drops from a chute into a 25-kg cart with a velocity
of 3 m/s. Knowing that the cart is initially at rest and can roll freely,
determine (a) the final velocity of the cart, (b) the impulse exerted by
the cart on the package, (c) the fraction of the initial energy lost in
the impact.
X direction First, find v2

m p v1 Imp 12 m p m c v2

m p v1 cos 300 0 m p m c v2
10 * 3 cos 30 0 10 25 v2
0

v2 0.742m / s
m p v1 Imp 12 m p v2

Fx 18.56
10 * 3 cos 30 0 Fx t 10 0.742 Fy 15.0

10 * 3 sin 300 Fy t 0

Ft 23.9 N38.90
 Energy lost

1 2 1
T1 m p v1 10 * 32 45 J
2 2
T2 m p mc v1 10 25 * 0.742 2 9.63 J
1 2 1
2 2
T1 T2 45 9.63
0.786
T1 45
 Impact
A collision between two bodies which occurs in a very small interval
of time and during which the two bodies exert relatively large forces
on each other is called an impact
 Direct Central Impact
A period of restitution; the two particles either will have regained
their original shape or will stay permanently deformed

m A v A mB v B m A v ' A mB v ' B

Positive value of any of the scalar

quantities vA, vB, vA, vB means that the
vector is directed towards right; a negative
value indicates that the corresponding
value is directed to the left.
 Coefficient of Restitution e m Av A Pdt m Au

m Au Rdt m Av' A
Force P and R are exerted from B
during deformation and restitution
period, respectively e
Rdt u v'
A

Pdt v Au
 Similarly
v' B u
e
u vB

e
u v' A v ' B u
v A u u vB
v ' B v ' A
e
v A vB
v ' B v ' A e v A v B
Because two equations for e are the same, you can add to find another
expression of e
1) When e=0, perfectly plastic impact

m A v A mB v B m A m B v '
2) When e=1, perfectly elastic impact
v ' B v ' A v A v B Momentum and total
energy are conserved
v A v' A vB v' B
m A v A mB v B m A v ' A mB v ' B
m A ( v A v ' A ) mB (v ' B v B )
m A (v A v ' A ) v A v ' A mB (v ' B v B ) v B v ' B
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m A v A mB v B m A v ' A mB v B
2 2 2 2

3) When e < 1, momentum and total energy is not conserved

 Oblique Central Impact
Assume perfectly smooth and frictionless

Momentum conservation

v A t v' A t Component

vB t v' B t
along t axis

m A v A n mB v B n m A v ' A n mB v ' B n Component

along n axis
Component along n axis of relative velocity of two particles after impact

v'B n v' A n e v A n vB t
 Constrained Condition

1. t-direction momentum is conserved vB t v' B t

2. x-direction momentum is conserved

m A v A mB v B x m A v ' A m B v ' B x
 v'B n v' A n e v A n vB n

The above equation can be obtained as seen here

m Av A Pdt cos m u A

m u Rdt cos m v'

A A A

e
Rdt cos u v'

Pdt cos v u
n A n

A n n
 Problem Involving Energy and Momentum

Three methods for kinetics problems; F=ma, method of work and

energy and method of impulse and momentum,

Apply energy Momentum Apply energy

method conservation method
A 20-Mg railroad car moving at a speed of 0.5 m/s to the right
collides with a 35-Mg car which is at rest. If after the collision the 35-
Mg car is observed to move to the right at a speed of 0.3 m/s,
determine the coefficient of restitution between the two cars.
m A v A mB v B m A v ' A mB v ' B
20 * 0.5 35 * 0 20v' A 35 * 0.3
v' A 0.025m / s
v' B v' A 0.3 0.025
e 0.65
v A vB 0.5 0
coefficient of restitution
The magnitude and direction of the velocities of two identical
frictionless balls before they strike each other are as shown.
Assuming e = 0.90, determine the magnitude and direction of the
velocity of each ball after the impact.
 v A n v A cos 300 26.0 ft / s
v A t v A sin 300 15.0 ft / s
vB n vB cos 600 20.0 ft / s
vB t vB sin 60 34.6 ft / s
0
 The t-component doesnt change

v' A t 15.0 ft / s
v'B t 34.6 ft / s
m A v A n mB v B n m A v ' A n mB v ' B n
v'B n v' A n e v A n vB t

m A v A n mB v B n m A v ' A n mB v ' B n
v' A n v'B n 6.0
v'B n v' A n e v A n vB t
v' A n v'B n 41.4
A 30-kg block is dropped from a height of 2 m onto the 10-kg pan of a
spring scale. Assuming the impact to be perfectly plastic, determine
the maximum deflection of the pan. The constant of the spring is k =
20 kN/m.
 1
mA v A 1 0
2
T1
2
V1 WA y 294 N 2m 588 J
1 1
T2 m A v A 2 30 v A 2
2 2

2 2
V2 0
T1 V1 T2 V2
v A 2 6.26m / s
m A v A 2 mB vB 2 m A mB v3 Impact;
conservation of
30kg * 6.26m / s 0 (30 10)v3 momentum

v3 4.70m / s
1 conservation of
T3 m A mB v 32 442 J Energy
2
1 2
V3 Vg Ve 0 kx3 0.241J
2
T4 0
1 2
V4 Vg Ve WA WB h kx4 x3
WB
2 k
h x4 x3 x4 4.91*10 3
10 * 9.81
4 .91 *10 3

20 *103
T1 V1 T2 V2
x4 0.230m, h 0.225m
Two steel blocks slide without friction on a horizontal surface;
immediately before impact their velocities are as shown. Knowing
that e = 0.75, determine (a) their velocities after impact, (b) the
energy loss during impact.
A 0.27 kg collar A is released from rest, slides down a frictionless rod,
and strikes a 0.82 kg collar B which is at rest and supported by a
spring of constant 496.2 N/m. Knowing that the coefficient of
restitution between the two collars is 0.9, determine (a) the maximum
distance collar A moves up the rod after impact, (b) the maximum
distance collar B moves down the rod after impact.
Ball B is hanging from an inextensible cord. An identical ball A is
released from rest when it is just touching the cord and drops through
the vertical distance hA = 200 mm before striking ball B. Assuming
perfectly elastic impact (e = 1) and no friction, determine the resulting
maximum vertical displacement hB of ball B.
Kinematics of Rigid Bodies
 Introduction
Kinematics of rigid bodies: relations between time and the
positions, velocities, and accelerations of the particles forming a
rigid body.

Classification of rigid body motions:

- translation: rectilinear translation
curvilinear translation
- rotation about a fixed axis
- general plane motion
- motion about a fixed point
- general motion
Motion of the plate: is it translation or rotation?

Curvilinear translation Rotation

Translation

Consider rigid body in translation:

- direction of any straight line inside the
body is constant,
- all particles forming the body move in
parallel lines.

For any two particles in the body,

rB rA rB A
Differentiating with respect to time,

rB rA rB A rA

vB v A
All particles have the same velocity.
Differentiating with respect to time again,
rB rA rB A rA

aB a A
All particles have the same acceleration.
Rotation About a Fixed Axis
When a body rotates about a fixed axis, any point P in the
body travels along a circular path. The angular position of P
is defined by .

The change in angular position, d, is called the angular

displacement, with units of either radians or revolutions.
They are related by
1 revolution = 2 radians

Angular velocity, , is obtained by taking the time

derivative of angular displacement:

= d/dt (rad/s) +

Similarly, angular acceleration is

= d2/dt2 = d/dt or = (d/d) rad/s2 +
Rotation About a Fixed Axis: Representative Slab
Consider the motion of a representative slab in a
plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

Velocity of any point P of the slab,

v r k r
v r

Acceleration of any point P of the slab,

a r r

k r 2r

Resolving the acceleration into tangential and

normal components,

at k r a t r

an 2 r a n r 2
Equations Defining the Rotation of a Rigid Body
About a Fixed Axis
Motion of a rigid body rotating around a fixed axis
is often specified by the type of angular acceleration.
d d
Recall or dt
dt
d d 2 d
2
dt dt d

Uniform Rotation, = 0:
0 t

Uniformly Accelerated Rotation, = constant:

0 t
0 0t 12 t 2
2 02 2 0
A flywheel executes 1800 revolutions while it comes to rest from
speed of 6000 rpm. Assuming uniformly accelerated motion,
determine (a) the time required for the flywheel to coast to rest, (b)
the time required for the flywheel to execute the first 900 revolutions

Ans: a) t = 36 sec, b) t = 10.54 sec

When the power to an electric motor is turned on the motor reaches its
rated speed of 2400 rpm in 4 s, and when the power is turned off the
motor comes to rest in 40 s. Assuming uniformly accelerated motion,
determine the number of revolutions that the motor executes (a) in
reaching its rated speed, (b) in coming to rest.
Ans: a) 80 rev, b) 800 rev
A pulley and two loads are connected by inextensible cords as shown.
Load A has a constant acceleration of 10 in./s2 and an initial velocity
of 8 in./s, both directed upward. Determine (a) the number of
revolutions executed by the pulley in 3 s, (b) the velocity and position
of load B after 3 s, (c) the acceleration of point D on the rim of the
pulley at time t = 0.

Ans: a) 2.75 rev

b) vB = 57 in/sec
yB = 103.5 in

c) aD = 28.3 in/s2
 General Plane Motion

Pure translation, followed by rotation about A2 (to move B'1 to B' 2)

Motion of B w.r.t. A is pure rotation, i.e. B draws a circle centered at
A
Any plane motion can be represented as a translation of an arbitrary
reference point A and a rotation about A.
 Absolute and Relative Velocity
r r r
For any two points lying on the same rigid body: vB v A v B A

r
Note: vB A r r= distance from A to B
r r r
vB A k rB / A v B v A k rB A

Equation can be represented graphically by a velocity diagram

 Absolute and Relative Velocity
Assuming that the velocity vA of end A is known, determine the velocity
vB of end B and the angular velocity .
Locus for vB

Locus
for vB/A
vA

vB q
vB/A

r r r
v B v A vB A
The direction of vB and vB/A are known. Complete the velocity diagram.
vB
tan vB v A tan
vA
 Absolute and Relative Velocity in Plane Motion

Selecting point B as the reference point and solving for the velocity vA of end A
and the angular velocity leads to an equivalent velocity triangle.
vA/B has the same magnitude but opposite sense of vB/A. The sense of the relative
velocity is dependent on the choice of reference point.
Angular velocity of the rod in its rotation about B is the same as its rotation
about A. Angular velocity is not dependent on the choice of reference point.
 Most mechanism consist not of one but several moving parts. When
various parts of mechanism are pin-connected, the analysis of the
mechanism can be carried out by considering each part as a rigid
body.
points where two parts are connected must have same absolute
velocity.
A similar analysis can be used when gears are involved, since teeth
in contact must also have the same absolute velocity.
However, when a mechanism contains parts which slide on each
other, the relative velocity of the parts in contact must be taken into a
account.
In the engine system shown, the crank AB has a constant clockwise
angular velocity of 2000 rpm. For the crank position indicated,
determine
(a)the angular velocity of the connecting rod BD,
(b) the velocity of the piston P.
 Instantaneous Center of Rotation
For any body undergoing planar motion, there always exists a point in
the plane of motion at which the velocity is instantaneously zero (if it
were rigidly connected to the body).

This point is called the instantaneous center of rotation, or C. It may

or may not lie on the body!

If the location of this point can be determined, the velocity analysis

can be simplified because the body appears to rotate about this point
at that instant.
 Instantaneous Center of Rotation
To locate the C, we use the fact that the velocity of a point on a body is
always perpendicular to the position vector from C to that point.
If the velocity at two points A and B are known, C lies at the
intersection of the perpendiculars to the velocity vectors through A
and B .

If the velocity vectors at A and B

are perpendicular to the line AB,
C lies at the intersection of the
line AB with the line joining the
extremities of the velocity vectors
at A and B.

If the velocity vectors are equal & parallel, C is at infinity and the
angular velocity is zero (pure translation)
If the velocity vA of a point A on the body and the angular velocity
of the body are known, C is located along the line drawn
perpendicular to vA at A, at a distance r = vA/ from A. Note that the

C lies up and to the right of A since vA must cause a clockwise

angular velocity about C.
 Velocity Analysis using Instantaneous Center
The velocity of any point on a body undergoing general plane motion
can be determined easily if the instantaneous center is located.
Since the body seems to rotate about the IC at any
instant, the magnitude of velocity of any arbitrary
point is v = r , where r is the radial distance from the
IC to that point. The velocitys line of action is
perpendicular to its associated radial line. Note the
velocity has a direction which tends to move the point
in a manner consistent with the angular rotation
direction.
Velocity Analysis using Instantaneous Center
 Instantaneous Center of Rotation
C lies at the intersection of the
perpendiculars to the velocity vectors
through A and B .

vA vA

AC l cos
vA
v B BC l sin
l cos
v A tan

The velocity of any point on the rod can be obtained.

Accelerations cannot be determined using C.
The crank AB has a constant clockwise angular velocity of 2000 rpm.
For the crank position indicated, determine (a) the angular velocity of
the connecting rod BD, and (b) the velocity of the piston P.
C is at the intersection of the perpendiculars to the velocities through
B and D.
vB AB AB BD BC

BD
vB vD BD CD
BC
 Absolute and Relative Acceleration

Absolute acceleration of point B: aB a A aB A

Relative acceleration a B A includes tangential and normal
components:

a
B A t r a
B A n r 2
383
 Absolute and Relative Acceleration

Given a A and v A , determine a B and .

aB a A aB A


n
a A aB A aB A t
Vector result depends on sense of aA and the

relative magnitudes of a A and a B A n

Must also know angular velocity .

384
 Absolute and Relative Acceleration

Draw acceleration diagram to scale:

385
 Plane Motion of Rigid Bodies: Forces and Accelerations
Equations of Motion for a Rigid Body
Consider a rigid body acted upon
by several external forces.
Assume that the body is made of a
large number of particles.

For the motion of the mass center G

of the body with respect to the
Newtonian frame Oxyz,

F ma
For the motion of the body with
respect to the centroidal frame
Gxyz,
M G HG
System of external forces is
equipollent to the system

consisting of ma and H G .
16 - 386
 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body in Plane Motion
Angular momentum of the slab may be
computed by
n
H G ri vimi
i 1
n
ri ri mi
i 1


ri 2 mi

I
After differentiation,

H G I I
Results are also valid for plane motion of bodies
Consider a rigid slab in which are symmetrical with respect to the reference
plane motion. plane.
Results are not valid for asymmetrical bodies or
three-dimensional motion.
Plane Motion of a Rigid Body: DAlemberts Principle
Motion of a rigid body in plane motion is
completely defined by the resultant and moment
resultant about G of the external forces.
Fx ma x Fy ma y M G I
The external forces and the collective effective
forces of the slab particles are equipollent (reduce
to the same resultant and moment resultant) and
equivalent (have the same effect on the body).
DAlemberts Principle: The external forces
acting on a rigid body are equivalent to the
effective forces of the various particles forming
the body.
The most general motion of a rigid body that is
symmetrical with respect to the reference plane
can be replaced by the sum of a translation and a
centroidal rotation.
Problems Involving the Motion of a Rigid Body
The fundamental relation between the forces
acting on a rigid body in plane motion and the
acceleration of its mass center and the angular
acceleration of the body is illustrated in a free-
body-diagram equation.

The techniques for solving problems of

static equilibrium may be applied to solve
problems of plane motion by utilizing
- dAlemberts principle, or
- principle of dynamic equilibrium

These techniques may also be applied to

problems involving plane motion of
connected rigid bodies by drawing a free-
body-diagram equation for each body and
solving the corresponding equations of
motion simultaneously.
At a forward speed of 10 m/s, the truck brakes were applied, causing
the wheels to stop rotating. It was observed that the truck to skidded
to a stop in 6 m.
Determine the magnitude of the normal reaction and the friction force
at each wheel as the truck skidded to a stop.
SOLUTION:
Calculate the acceleration during the
skidding stop by assuming uniform
acceleration.
Draw the free-body-diagram equation
expressing the equivalence of the
external and effective forces.

Apply the three corresponding scalar

equations to solve for the unknown
normal wheel forces at the front and
rear and the coefficient of friction
between the wheels and road surface.
 SOLUTION:
Calculate the acceleration during the skidding
stop by assuming uniform acceleration.

v 2 v02 2a x x0
0 10 m/s 2a 6 m a 8.33 m/s 2
2

v0 10 m/s x 6m
Draw a free-body-diagram equation expressing
the equivalence of the external and effective
forces.
Apply the corresponding scalar equations.
Fy Fy eff N A NB W 0

Fx Fx eff FA FB ma
k N A N B
kW W g a
a 8.33
k 0.849
g 9.81
 Apply the corresponding scalar equations.

M A M A eff

1.5 m W 3.6 m N B 1.2 m ma

1 W W a
NB 5W 1.2 a 1.5 1.2
3.6 g 3.6 g
N B 17.16 kN

N A W N B 7.37 kN

N rear 12 N A 7.37 kN N rear 3.69 kN

Frear k N rear 0.849 3.69 kN
Frear 3.13 kN
N front 12 N B 1
2 17.16 kN
N front 8.58 kN
F front k N front 0.849 8.58 kN

F front 7.29 kN
A pulley weighing 6 kg and having a radius of gyration of 200 mm is
connected to two blocks as shown.
Assuming no axle friction, determine the angular acceleration of the
pulley and the acceleration of each block.
SOLUTION:
Determine the direction of rotation by evaluating the net moment on the pulley due
to the two blocks.

M G 5 kg 150 mm 2.5 kg 250 mm 10 in lb

rotation is counterclockwise.
W 2
note: I mk 2 k
g
2
6 kg 8
2
ft
32.2 ft s 12

0.24 kg m 2

Relate the acceleration of the blocks to the angular

acceleration of the pulley.

a A rA a B rb
(0.25 m) (0.15 m)
A uniform sphere of mass m and radius r is projected along a rough
horizontal surface with a linear velocity v0. The coefficient of kinetic
friction between the sphere and the surface is mk.
Determine: (a) the time t1 at which the sphere will start rolling
without sliding, and (b) the linear and angular velocities of the sphere
at time t1.
SOLUTION:
Draw the free-body-diagram equation expressing the equivalence of external and
effective forces on the sphere.
Solve the three scalar equilibrium equations.

Fy Fy eff
N W 0 N W mg
Fx Fx eff
F ma
k mg a k g
M G M G eff
Fr I
5 k g
k mg r 23 mr 2
2 r

NOTE: As long as the sphere both rotates and slides, its linear and angular motions
are uniformly accelerated.
 Apply the kinematic relations for uniformly accelerated motion to determine the
time at which the tangential velocity of the sphere at the surface is zero, i.e.,
when the sphere stops sliding.

v v 0 a t v 0 k g t

5 k g
0 t 0 t
2 r

At the instant t1 when the sphere stops sliding,

a k g v1 r1
5 k g
5 k g t1
2 v0
2 r v0 k gt1 r t1
2 r 7 k g
5 k g 5 k g 2 v0 5 v0
1 t1 1
2 r 2 r 7 k g 7 r
5 v0
v1 r1 r v1 75 v0
7 r
Constrained Plane Motion: Rolling Motion
For a balanced disk constrained to
roll without sliding,
x r a r
Rolling, no sliding:
F s N a r
Rolling, sliding impending:
F s N a r
Rotating and sliding:
F k N a, r independe
nt
For the geometric center of an
unbalanced disk,
aO r
The acceleration of the mass center,

aG aO aG O



t
aO aG O aG O

n
16 - 398
A sphere of weight W is released with no initial velocity and rolls
without slipping on the incline.

Determine: a) the minimum value of the coefficient of friction, b) the

velocity of G after the sphere has rolled 3 m and c) the velocity of G
if the sphere were to move 3 m down a frictionless incline.
SOLUTION:
Draw the free-body-equation for the sphere, expressing the equivalence of the
external and effective forces.
With the linear and angular accelerations related,
solve the three scalar equations derived from the
free-body-equation for the angular acceleration
and the normal and tangential reactions at C.

M C M C eff
W sin r ma r I
mr r 52 mr 2
a r
W
r r
2W 2
r
g 5 g 5 g sin

7r
5 g sin 30
a r
7

5 9.81m s 2 sin 30 a 3 .5 m s 2
7
 Solve the three scalar equations derived from the free-body-equation for the
angular acceleration and the normal and tangential reactions at C.

Fx Fx eff mg sin F ma
mg 5 g sin

g 7
2
F mg sin 30 0.143mg
7
Fy ( Fy )eff N mg cos 0
N mg cos 30 0.866 mg

5 g sin Calculate the friction coefficient required for the

indicated tangential reaction at C.
7r
a r 3.5 m s 2 F s N
F 0.143 mg
s
N 0.866 mg s 0.165