Chapter5 DataLink

Chapter 5
Link Layer
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Link Layer 5-1

Chapter 5: Link layer
our goals:
understand principles behind link
layer services:
error detection, correction
sharing a broadcast channel: multiple
access
link layer addressing
local area networks: Ethernet, VLANs
instantiation, implementation of
various link layer technologies
Link Layer 5-2

Link layer, LANs: outline
5.1 introduction, 5.5 link virtualization:
services MPLS
5.2 error detection, 5.6 data center
correction networking
5.3 multiple access 5.7 a day in the life
protocols of a web request
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
Link Layer 5-3

Link layer:
introduction
terminology:
hosts and routers: nodes
communication channels global ISP
that connect adjacent
nodes along
communication path: links
wired links
wireless links
LANs
layer-2 packet: frame,
encapsulates datagram
data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node
to physically adjacent node over a link
Link Layer 5-4
Link layer: context
datagram transferred transportation analogy:
by different link trip from Princeton to
protocols over different Lausanne
links: limo: Princeton to JFK
plane: JFK to Geneva
e.g., Ethernet on first
train: Geneva to Lausanne
link, frame relay on
intermediate links,
tourist = datagram
802.11 on last link transport segment =
each link protocol communication link
provides different transportation mode =
services link layer protocol
e.g., may or may not travel agent = routing
provide rdt over link algorithm
Link Layer 5-5

Link layer services
framing, link access:
encapsulate datagram into frame, adding
header, trailer
channel access if shared medium
MAC addresses used in frame headers to
identify source, dest
different from IP address!
reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)!
seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some
twisted pair)
wireless links: high error rates
Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?
Link Layer 5-6

Link layer services
(more)
flow control:
pacing between adjacent sending and receiving
nodes
error detection:
errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
receiver detects presence of errors:
signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
error correction:
receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without
resorting to retransmission
half-duplex and full-duplex
with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can
transmit, but not at same time
Link Layer 5-7

Where is the link layer
implemented?
in each and every host
link layer implemented
in adaptor (aka
network interface card
NIC) or on a chip application
Ethernet card, 802.11 transport
cpu memory
network
card; Ethernet chipset link
implements link,
host
physical layer bus
controller (e.g., PCI)
attaches into hosts link
physical
system buses physical
transmission
combination of
hardware, software, network adapter
firmware card
Link Layer 5-8

Adaptors communicating
datagram datagram
controller controller
sending host receiving host

datagram
frame
sending side: receiving side

encapsulates datagram looks for errors, rdt, flow
in frame control, etc
adds error checking extracts datagram,
bits, rdt, flow control, passes to upper layer at
etc. receiving side
Link Layer 5-9

services MPLS
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
Link Layer 5-10

Error detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields
Error detection not 100% reliable!

protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
larger EDC field yields better detection and correction
otherwise
Link Layer 5-11

Parity checking
single bit parity: two-dimensional bit parity:
detect single bit detect and correct single bit errors
errors
0 0
Link Layer 5-12

Internet checksum (review)
goal: detect errors (e.g., flipped bits) in
transmitted packet (note: used at transport
layer only)
sender: receiver:
treat segment compute checksum of
contents as sequence received segment
of 16-bit integers check if computed
checksum: addition checksum equals
(1s complement checksum field value:
sum) of segment NO - error detected
contents
sender puts
YES - no error
checksum value into detected. But maybe
UDP checksum field errors nonetheless?
Link Layer 5-13

Cyclic redundancy check
more powerful error-detection coding
view data bits, D, as a binary number
choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
<D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero
remainder: error detected!
can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice (Ethernet, 802.11 WiFi,
ATM)
Link Layer 5-14

CRC example
want: G D r=3
D.2r XOR R = nG 101000
equivalently: 1001 101110000
1001
D.2r = nG XOR R
101
equivalently: 000
if we divide D.2r by 1010
G, want remainder 1001
R to satisfy: 010
000
100
D.2r R 000
R = remainder[ ]
1000
G
0000
1000
Link Layer 5-15

services MPLS
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
Link Layer 5-16

Multiple access links,
protocols
two types of links:
point-to-point
PPP for dial-up access
point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)
old-fashioned Ethernet
upstream HFC
802.11 wireless LAN
shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF humans at a

cabled Ethernet) (e.g., 802.11 WiFi) (satellite) cocktail party
(shared air, acoustical)
Link Layer 5-17

Multiple access protocols
single shared broadcast channel
two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:
interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at
the same time
multiple access protocol

distributed algorithm that determines how nodes
share channel, i.e., determine when node can
transmit
communication about channel sharing must use
channel itself!
no out-of-band channel for coordination
Link Layer 5-18

An ideal multiple access
protocol
given: broadcast channel of rate R bps
desiderata:
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send
at rate R.
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can
send at average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:
no special node to coordinate transmissions
no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple
Link Layer 5-19

MAC protocols: taxonomy
three broad classes:
channel partitioning
divide channel into smaller pieces (time slots,
frequency, code)
allocate piece to node for exclusive use
random access
channel not divided, allow collisions
recover from collisions
taking turns
nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can
take longer turns
Link Layer 5-20

Channel partitioning MAC protocols:
TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
access to channel in "rounds"
each station gets fixed length slot
(length = pkt trans time) in each round
unused slots go idle
example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt,
slots 2,5,6 idle
6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4
Link Layer 5-21

Channel partitioning MAC protocols:
FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
each station assigned fixed frequency band
unused transmission time in frequency bands go
idle
example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt,
frequency bands 2,5,6 idle
time
frequency bands
FDM cable
Link Layer 5-22

Random access protocols
when node has packet to send
transmit at full channel data rate R.
no a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes
collision,
random access MAC protocol specifies:
how to detect collisions
how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed
retransmissions)
examples of random access MAC protocols:
slotted ALOHA
ALOHA
CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
Link Layer 5-23

Slotted ALOHA
assumptions: operation:
all frames same size when node obtains fresh
time divided into frame, transmits in next
equal size slots (time slot
to transmit 1 frame) if no collision: node
nodes start to can send new frame
transmit only slot in next slot
beginning if collision: node
nodes are retransmits frame in
synchronized each subsequent slot
if 2 or more nodes with prob. p until
transmit in slot, all success
nodes detect collision
Link Layer 5-24

Slotted ALOHA
node 1 1 1 1 1
node 2 2 2 2
node 3 3 3 3
C E C S E C E S S
Pros: Cons:
single active node collisions, wasting slots
can continuously idle slots
transmit at full rate nodes may be able to
of channel detect collision in less
highly decentralized: than time to transmit
only slots in nodes packet
need to be in sync clock synchronization
simple
Link Layer 5-25
Slotted ALOHA: efficiency
efficiency: long-run max efficiency: find

fraction of successful p* that maximizes
slots Np(1-p)N-1
(many nodes, all with for many nodes, take
many frames to send) limit of Np*(1-p*)N-1
suppose: N nodes with as N goes to infinity,
many frames to send, gives:
each transmits in slot max efficiency = 1/e
with probability p
= .37
!
prob that given node at best:
has success in a slot = channel
p(1-p)N-1
used for useful
prob that any node has transmissions
a success = Np(1-p)N-1 37%
of time!
Link Layer 5-26
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
when frame first arrives
transmit immediately
collision probability increases:
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent
in [t0-1,t0+1]
Link Layer 5-27

Pure ALOHA efficiency
P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-
1,t0] .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-
1,t0]
= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
= p . (1-p)2(N-1)
choosing optimum p and then letting n
= 1/(2e) = .18
even worse than slotted Aloha!
Link Layer 5-28

CSMA (carrier sense multiple
access)
CSMA: listen before transmit:
if channel sensed idle: transmit entire
frame
if channel sensed busy, defer
transmission
human analogy: dont interrupt others!
Link Layer 5-29

CSMA collisions spatial layout of nodes
collisions can still

occur: propagation
delay means two
nodes may not hear
each others
transmission
collision: entire
packet transmission
time wasted
distance &
propagation delay
play role in in
determining collision
probability
Link Layer 5-30

CSMA/CD (collision
detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in
CSMA
collisions detected within short time
colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel
wastage
collision detection:
easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,
compare transmitted, received signals
difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength
overwhelmed by local transmission strength
human analogy: the polite conversationalist
Link Layer 5-31

CSMA/CD (collision
detection)
spatial layout of nodes
Link Layer 5-32

Ethernet CSMA/CD
algorithm
1. NIC receives datagram 4. If NIC detects another
from network layer, transmission while
creates frame transmitting, aborts
2. If NIC senses channel and sends jam signal
idle, starts frame 5. After aborting, NIC
transmission. If NIC enters binary
senses channel busy, (exponential) backoff:
waits until channel idle, after mth collision, NIC
then transmits. chooses K at random
from {0,1,2, , 2m-1}.
3. If NIC transmits entire NIC waits K512 bit
frame without times, returns to Step 2
detecting another longer backoff interval
transmission, NIC is with more collisions
done with frame !
Link Layer 5-33

CSMA/CD efficiency
Tprop = max prop delay between 2 nodes in LAN
ttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
efficiency goes to 1
as tprop goes to 0
as ttrans goes to infinity
better performance than ALOHA: and simple, cheap, decentralized! 1
efficiency
1 5t prop /t trans
Link Layer 5-34

Taking turns MAC
protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols:
share channel efficiently and fairly at high
load
inefficient at low load: delay in channel
access, 1/N bandwidth allocated even if only
1 active node!
random access MAC protocols
efficient at low load: single node can fully
utilize channel
high load: collision overhead
taking turns protocols
look for best of both worlds!
Link Layer 5-35
Taking turns MAC
protocols
polling:
master node
invites slave data
nodes to transmit poll
in turn
typically used with master
data
dumb slave
devices
concerns:
polling slaves
overhead
latency
single point of
failure (master)
Link Layer 5-36
Taking turns MAC
protocols
token passing: T
control token
passed from one
node to next
sequentially. (nothing
token message to send)
concerns: T
token overhead
latency
single point of
failure (token)
data
Link Layer 5-37
Cable access
network Internet frames,TV channels, control transmitted
downstream at different frequencies
cable headend
CMTS

cable
cable modem
splitter
modem
termination system
ISP
upstream Internet frames, TV control, transmitted
upstream at different frequencies in time slots
multiple 40Mbps downstream (broadcast) channels

single CMTS transmits into channels
multiple 30 Mbps upstream channels
multiple access: all users contend for certain
upstream channel time slots (others assigned)
Cable access
network
cable headend MAP frame for
Interval [t1, t2]
Downstream channel i
CMTS
Upstream channel j
t1 t2 Residences with cable modems
Minislots containing Assigned minislots containing cable modem

minislots request frames upstream data frames
DOCSIS: data over cable service interface

spec
FDM over upstream, downstream frequency
channels
TDM upstream: some slots assigned, some
have contention
downstream MAP frame: assigns upstream
Link Layer 5-39
Summary of MAC
protocols
channel partitioning, by time, frequency or
code
Time Division, Frequency Division
random access (dynamic),
ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
carrier sensing: easy in some technologies
(wire), hard in others (wireless)
CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
CSMA/CA used in 802.11
taking turns
polling from central site, token passing
bluetooth, FDDI, token ring
Link Layer 5-40

services MPLS
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
Link Layer 5-41

MAC addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address:
network-layer address for interface
used for layer 3 (network layer) forwarding
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet)
address:
function: used locally to get frame from one
interface to another physically-connected
interface (same network, in IP-addressing
sense)
48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in
NIC ROM, also sometimes software settable
hexadecimal (base 16) notation
e.g.:
(each 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
number represents 4 bits)
Link Layer 5-42

LAN addresses and ARP
each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
LAN
(wired or adapter
wireless)
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
Link Layer 5-43

LAN addresses (more)
MAC address allocation administered by
IEEE
manufacturer buys portion of MAC address
space (to assure uniqueness)
analogy:
MAC address: like Social Security Number
IP address: like postal address
MAC flat address portability
can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address not portable
address depends on IP subnet to which node is
attached
Link Layer 5-44
ARP: address resolution
protocol
Question: how to determine
interfaces MAC address,
knowing its IP address? ARP table: each IP node
(host, router) on LAN has
table
137.196.7.78
IP/MAC address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD mappings for some
137.196.7.23 LAN nodes:
137.196.7.14
< IP address; MAC address;
TTL>
LAN TTL (Time To Live):
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
time after which
address mapping will
be forgotten (typically
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
20 min)
137.196.7.88
Link Layer 5-45

ARP protocol: same LAN
A wants to send
datagram to B
Bs MAC address not in A caches (saves) IP-
As ARP table.
to-MAC address pair
A broadcasts ARP query in its ARP table until
packet, containing B's
IP address information becomes
dest MAC address = FF- old (times out)
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF soft state: information
all nodes on LAN receive that times out (goes
ARP query away) unless
B receives ARP packet, refreshed
replies to A with its ARP is plug-and-
(B's) MAC address play:
frame sent to As MAC nodes create their
address (unicast)
ARP tables without
intervention from net
administrator
Link Layer 5-46
Addressing: routing to another
LAN
walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R
focus on addressing at IP (datagram) and MAC layer (frame)
assume A knows Bs IP address
assume A knows IP address of first hop router, R (how?)
assume A knows Rs MAC address (how?)
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F
Link Layer 5-47

LAN
A creates IP datagram with IP source A, destination B
A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
Eth
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-48

LAN
frame sent from A to R
frame received at R, datagram removed, passed up to IP
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55

MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP IP
Eth Eth
Phy Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-49

LAN
R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest,
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-50

LAN
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-51

LAN
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
Eth
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-52

services MPLS
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
Link Layer 5-53

Ethernet
dominant wired LAN technology:
cheap $20 for NIC
first widely used LAN technology
simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM
kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps 10 Gbps
Metcalfes Ethernet sketch

Link Layer 5-54
Ethernet: physical topology
bus: popular through mid 90s
all nodes in same collision domain (can collide with
each other)
star: prevails today
active switch in center
each spoke runs a (separate) Ethernet protocol
(nodes do not collide with each other)
switch
star
bus: coaxial cable
Link Layer 5-55
Ethernet frame structure
sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram
(or other network layer protocol packet)
in Ethernet frametype
dest. source
preamble address address data CRC
(payload)
preamble:
7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed
by one byte with pattern 10101011
used to synchronize receiver, sender
clock rates
Link Layer 5-56

Ethernet frame structure
(more)
addresses: 6 byte source, destination MAC
addresses
if adapter receives frame with matching destination
address, or with broadcast address (e.g. ARP packet),
it passes data in frame to network layer protocol
otherwise, adapter discards frame
type: indicates higher layer protocol (mostly IP
but others possible, e.g., Novell IPX, AppleTalk)
CRC: cyclic redundancy check at receiver
error detected: frame is dropped
type
dest. source
preamble address address data CRC
(payload)
Link Layer 5-57

Ethernet: unreliable,
connectionless
connectionless: no handshaking between
sending and receiving NICs
unreliable: receiving NIC doesnt send acks
or nacks to sending NIC
data in dropped frames recovered only if
initial sender uses higher layer rdt (e.g.,
TCP), otherwise dropped data lost
Ethernets MAC protocol: unslotted
CSMA/CD wth binary backoff
Link Layer 5-58

802.3 Ethernet standards: link & physical
layers
many different Ethernet standards
common MAC protocol and frame format
different speeds: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100
Mbps, 1Gbps, 10G bps
different physical layer media: fiber, cable
MAC protocol
application and frame format
transport
network 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T2 100BASE-FX
link 100BASE-T4 100BASE-SX 100BASE-BX
physical
copper (twister fiber physical layer

pair) physical layer
Link Layer 5-59
services MPLS
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
Link Layer 5-60

Ethernet switch
link-layer device: takes an active role
store, forward Ethernet frames
examine incoming frames MAC address,
selectively forward frame to one-or-more
outgoing links when frame is to be
forwarded on segment, uses CSMA/CD to
access segment
transparent
hosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play, self-learning
switches do not need to be configured
Link Layer 5-61

Switch: multiple simultaneous
transmissions
hosts have dedicated, A
direct connection to
switch C B
switches buffer packets 1
6 2
Ethernet protocol used on
each incoming link, but no 5 4 3
collisions; full duplex
each link is its own B C
collision domain
switching: A-to-A and B- A
to-B can transmit switch with six interfaces
simultaneously, without (1,2,3,4,5,6)
collisions
Link Layer 5-62

Switch forwarding table
Q: how does switch know A
A reachable via interface B
C
4, B reachable via
interface
A: each5?switch has a 6 1 2
switch table, each
4
entry: 5 3
(MAC address of host, B C

interface to reach host,
time stamp) A
looks like a routing table!
Q: how are entries switch with six interfaces
(1,2,3,4,5,6)
created, maintained in
switch table?
something like a routing
protocol? Link Layer 5-63
Switch: self-learning Source: A
Dest: A
A A A
switch learns which
hosts can be reached C B
through which
interfaces 6 1 2
when frame
received, switch 5 4 3
learns location
of sender: incoming B C
LAN segment
records A
sender/location
pair in switch table
MAC addr interface TTL
A 1 60 Switch table
(initially empty)
Link Layer 5-64

Switch: frame
filtering/forwarding
when frame received at switch:
1. record incoming link, MAC address of sending host

2. index switch table using MAC destination address
3. if entry found for destination
then {
if destination on segment from which frame arrived
then drop frame
else forward frame on interface indicated by
entry
}
else flood /* forward on all interfaces except
arriving
interface */
Link Layer 5-65

Self-learning, forwarding: Source: A
example Dest: A
A A A
frame destination,
B
flood
A, locaton unknown: C
1
destination A 6 2
locationselectively
known: A A
5 4 3
send
B C
on just one link A A
MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 switch table
A 4 60 (initially empty)
Link Layer 5-66

Interconnecting switches
switches can be connected together
S4
S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E
Q: sending from A to G - how does S1 know

to forward frame destined to F via S4 and
S3?
A: self learning! (works exactly the same
as in single-switch case!) Link Layer 5-67
Self-learning multi-switch
example
Suppose C sends frame to I, I responds to C
S4
S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E
Q: show switch tables and packet forwarding in

S1, S2, S3, S4
Link Layer 5-68

Institutional network
mail server
to external
network
router web server
IP subnet
Link Layer 5-69

Switches vs.
routers application
transport
both are store-and-forward: datagram network
routers: network-layer frame link
devices (examine network- physical link frame
layer headers)
physical
switches: link-layer
devices (examine link-layer switch
headers)
network datagram
both have forwarding
tables: link frame
routers: compute tables physical
using routing algorithms, IP application
addresses transport
switches: learn forwarding network
table using flooding, link
learning, MAC addresses
physical
Link Layer 5-70

VLANs: motivation
consider:
CS user moves office to
EE, but wants connect to
CS switch?
single broadcast domain:
all layer-2 broadcast
traffic (ARP, DHCP,
unknown location of
destination MAC
Computer
Science
Computer address) must cross
Electrical
Engineering
Engineering entire LAN
security/privacy,
efficiency issues
Link Layer 5-71

port-based VLAN: switch ports
VLANs grouped (by switch
management software) so
that single physical switch
Virtual Local 1 7 9 15
Area Network 2 8 10 16
switch(es) supporting
VLAN capabilities can
be configured to Electrical Engineering Computer Science
define multiple virtual (VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)
LANS over single operates as multiple virtual

physical LAN switches
infrastructure. 1 7 9 15
2 8 10 16
Electrical Engineering Computer Science

(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-16)
Link Layer 5-72

Port-based VLAN
router
traffic isolation: frames
to/from ports 1-8 can
only reach ports 1-8
can also define VLAN based on
MAC addresses of endpoints,
rather than switch port 1 7 9 15
2 8 10 16
dynamic membership:

ports can be
dynamically assigned Electrical Engineering Computer Science
among VLANs (VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)
forwarding between VLANS:

done via routing (just as with
separate switches)
in practice vendors sell
combined switches plus routers
Link Layer 5-73

VLANS spanning multiple
switches
1 7 9 15 1 3 5 7
2 8 10 16 2 4 6 8
Electrical Engineering Computer Science Ports 2,3,5 belong to EE VLAN

(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15) Ports 4,6,7,8 belong to CS VLAN
trunk port: carries frames between VLANS defined

over multiple physical switches
frames forwarded within VLAN between switches cant be
vanilla 802.1 frames (must carry VLAN ID info)
802.1q protocol adds/removed additional header fields
for frames forwarded between trunk ports
Link Layer 5-74

802.1Q VLAN frame format
type
preamble dest. source data (payload) CRC

address address 802.1 frame
type
data (payload) CRC 802.1Q frame
2-byte Tag Protocol Identifier

Recomputed
(value: 81-00)
CRC
Tag Control Information (12 bit VLAN ID field,

3 bit priority field like IP TOS)
Link Layer 5-75

services MPLS
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
Link Layer 5-76

Multiprotocol label switching
(MPLS)
initial goal: high-speed IP forwarding
using fixed length label (instead of IP
address)
fast lookup using fixed length identifier
(rather than shortest prefix matching)
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC)
approach
but
PPP IP datagram still keeps IP address!
or Ethernet
MPLS header IP header remainder of link-layer frame
header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
Link Layer 5-77
MPLS capable routers
a.k.a. label-switched router
forward packets to outgoing interface based
only on label value (dont inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding
tables
flexibility: MPLS forwarding decisions can
differ from those of IP
use destination and source addresses to route
flows to same destination differently (traffic
engineering)
re-route flows quickly if link fails: pre-computed
backup paths (useful for VoIP)
Link Layer 5-78

MPLS versus IP paths
R6
D
R4 R3
R5
A
R2
IP routing: path to destination IP router

determined by destination
address alone
Link Layer 5-79

MPLS versus IP paths
entry router (R4) can use different MPLS
routes to A based, e.g., on source address
R6
D
R4 R3
R5
A
R2
IP routing: path to destination IP-only

router
determined by destination
address alone MPLS and
MPLS routing: path to IP router
destination can be based on
source and dest. address
fast reroute: precompute backup Link Layer 5-80
MPLS signaling
modify OSPF, IS-IS link-state flooding protocols to
carry info used by MPLS routing,
e.g., link bandwidth, amount of reserved link bandwidth
entry MPLS router uses RSVP-TE signaling

protocol to set up MPLS forwarding at
downstream routers
RSVP-TE
R6
D
R4
R5 modified
link state A
flooding
Link Layer 5-81

MPLS forwarding tables
in out out
label label dest
interface
10 A 0 in out out
12 D 0 label label dest
interface
8 A 1 10 6 A 1
12 9 D 0
R6
0 0
D
1 1
R4 R3
R5
0 0
A
R2 in outR1 out
label label dest
in out out
interface
label label dest 6 - A 0
interface
8 6 A 0
Link Layer 5-82
services MPLS
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
Link Layer 5-83

Data center networks
10s to 100s of thousands of hosts, often closely coupled, in close proximity:
e-business (e.g. Amazon)
content-servers (e.g., YouTube, Akamai, Apple, Microsoft)
search engines, data mining (e.g., Google)
challenges:
multiple applications,
each serving massive
numbers of clients
managing/balancing
load, avoiding
processing, networking,
data bottlenecks Inside a 40-ft Microsoft container,
Chicago data center
Link Layer 5-84
load balancer: application-layer
routing
receives external client requests
directs workload within data center
Internet returns results to external client
(hiding data center internals from
client)
Border router
Load Load
balancer Access router
balancer
Tier-1 switches
B
A C Tier-2 switches
TOR
switches
Server racks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Link Layer 5-85
rich interconnection among switches, racks:
increased throughput between racks (multiple
routing paths possible)
increased reliability via redundancy
Tier-1 switches
Tier-2 switches
TOR
switches
Server racks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
services MPLS
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
Link Layer 5-87

Synthesis: a day in the life of a web
request
journey down protocol stack complete!
application, transport, network, link
putting-it-all-together: synthesis!
goal: identify, review, understand protocols
(at all layers) involved in seemingly simple
scenario: requesting www page
scenario: student attaches laptop to campus
network, requests/receives www.google.com
Link Layer 5-88

A day in the life: scenario
browser DNS server

Comcast network
68.80.0.0/13
school network
68.80.2.0/24
web page
web server Googles network

64.233.169.105 64.233.160.0/19
Link Layer 5-89

A day in the life connecting to the
Internet
DHCP DHCP connecting laptop needs to
DHCP UDP get its own IP address, addr
DHCP IP of first-hop router, addr of
DHCP Eth DNS server: use DHCP
Phy
DHCP
DHCP request
DHCP
encapsulated in UDP,
DHCP
DHCP UDP encapsulated in IP,
DHCP IP encapsulated in 802.3
DHCP Eth router Ethernet
Phy (runs DHCP) Ethernet frame
broadcast (dest:
FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
received at router
running DHCP
Ethernet server
demuxed to
IP demuxed, UDP
demuxed to DHCP
Link Layer 5-90
A day in the life connecting to the
Internet
DHCP DHCP DHCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP clients IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server
encapsulation at
DHCP DHCP DHCP server, frame
DHCP UDP forwarded (switch
DHCP IP learning) through LAN,
DHCP Eth router demultiplexing at
Phy (runs DHCP)
DHCP client client receives
DHCP
DHCP ACK reply
Client now has IP address, knows name & addr of DNS

server, IP address of its first-hop router
Link Layer 5-91

A day in the life ARP (before DNS,
before HTTP)
DNS DNS before sending HTTP request,
DNS UDP need IP address of
DNS
ARP
IP www.google.com: DNS
ARP query Eth
Phy DNS query created,
encapsulated in UDP,
encapsulated in IP,
ARP reply
ARP
Eth
encapsulated in Eth. To
Phy send frame to router, need
MAC
ARP address of router
query broadcast,
router
(runs DHCP) interface: ARP
received by router, which
replies with ARP reply
giving MAC address of
router interface
client now knows MAC
address of first hop router,
so can now send frame
containing DNS query
Link Layer 5-92
A day in the life using DNSDNS
DNS UDP DNS server
DNS IP
DNS DNS DNS Eth
DNS UDP DNS Phy
DNS IP
DNS Eth
Phy
DNS
Comcast network
68.80.0.0/13
router
IP datagram forwarded
(runs DHCP) from campus network into
IP datagram containing comcast network, routed
DNS query forwarded (tables created by RIP,
via LAN switch from OSPF, IS-IS and/or BGP
client to 1st hop router routing protocols)
demuxed to DNS to DNS
server
server
DNS server replies to
client with IP address
Link Layer 5-93
A day in the lifeTCP connection
carrying HTTP
HTTP
HTTP
SYNACK
SYN TCP
SYNACK
SYN IP
SYNACK
SYN Eth
Phy
to send HTTP request,

client first opens TCP
socket to web server
router TCP SYN segment (step 1
(runs DHCP)
SYNACK
SYN TCP in 3-way handshake)
SYNACK
SYN IP inter-domain routed to
SYN
SYNACK Eth web server
Phy web server responds
with TCP SYNACK (step 2
web server in 3-way handshake)
64.233.169.105 TCP connection
established!
Link Layer 5-94
A day in the life HTTP
request/reply
HTTP
HTTP HTTP web page finally (!!!)
HTTP
HTTP TCP displayed
HTTP
HTTP IP
HTTP
HTTP Eth
Phy
HTTP request sent into

TCP socket
HTTP
router IP datagram containing
HTTP (runs DHCP)
HTTP TCP HTTP request routed to
HTTP IP www.google.com
HTTP Eth web server responds
Phy
with HTTP reply
(containing web page)
web server
64.233.169.105
IP datagram containing
HTTP reply routed back to
client
Link Layer 5-95
Chapter 5: Summary
principles behind data link layer services:
error detection, correction
sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
link layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of
various link layer technologies
Ethernet
switched LANS, VLANs
virtualized networks as a link layer: MPLS
synthesis: a day in the life of a web
request
Link Layer 5-96

Chapter 5: lets take a
breath
journey down protocol stack complete
(except PHY)
solid understanding of networking
principles, practice
.. could stop here . but lots of
interesting topics!
wireless
multimedia
security
network management
Link Layer 5-97

Chapter5 DataLink

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Chapter 5

A note on the use of these ppt slides: Computer

Link Layer 5-1

Link Layer 5-2

Link Layer 5-3

data-link layer has responsibility of

Link Layer 5-5

Link Layer 5-6

Link Layer 5-7

Link Layer 5-8

sending host receiving host

sending side: receiving side

Link Layer 5-9

Link Layer 5-10

Error detection not 100% reliable!

Link Layer 5-11

Link Layer 5-12

Link Layer 5-13

Link Layer 5-14

Link Layer 5-15

Link Layer 5-16

shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF humans at a

Link Layer 5-17

multiple access protocol

Link Layer 5-18

Link Layer 5-19

Link Layer 5-20

Link Layer 5-21

Link Layer 5-22

Link Layer 5-23

Link Layer 5-24

efficiency: long-run max efficiency: find

Link Layer 5-27

choosing optimum p and then letting n

Link Layer 5-28

human analogy: dont interrupt others!

Link Layer 5-29

collisions can still

Link Layer 5-30

Link Layer 5-31

Link Layer 5-32

Link Layer 5-33

Link Layer 5-34

multiple 40Mbps downstream (broadcast) channels

t1 t2 Residences with cable modems

Minislots containing Assigned minislots containing cable modem

DOCSIS: data over cable service interface

Link Layer 5-40

Link Layer 5-41

Link Layer 5-42

Link Layer 5-43

Link Layer 5-45

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-47

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-48

MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-49

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-50

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

Link Layer 5-51

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221