Feedback Controllers

Chapter 8
 On-off Controllers
Simple
Cheap
Chapter 8

Used In residential heating and domestic refrigerators

Limited use in process control due to continuous
cycling of controlled variable excessive wear
on control valve.

Examples
Batchprocesscontrol(PLC=programmablelogiccontroller)
Solenoidinhomeheatingunit
Sprinklersystems
Cruisecontrol?
 On-Off Controllers
Synonyms:
two-position or bang-bang controllers.
Chapter 8

e = error =
set point measured variable

Controller output has two possible values.

 Practical case (dead band)
Chapter 8

= tolerance

system never reaches steady-state

Chapter 8
 Three Mode (PID) Controller
Proportional
Integral
Derivative
Proportional Control
Chapter 8

Define an error signal, e, by e = Ysp Ym

where
Ysp = set point
Ym = measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from transmitter)
 Since signals are time varying,
e(t) = Ysp(t) - Ym (t)
n.b. Watch units!!
Chapter 8

For proportional control: p(t) = p + K ce(t) p = p - p

where,
p(t) = controller output
p = bias value (adjustable)
Kc = controller gain (dimensionless, adjustable)
 Figures 8.4, 8.5
Chapter 8

in Text

Standards (ISO/ISA)

3 15 psi
4 - 20 ma
0 10 VDC
 Proportional Band, PB
100%
PB
Kc
Reverse or Direct Acting Controller
Kc can be made positive or negative
Recall for proportional FB control:
p(t) = p + K c e(t)
Chapter 8

or
p( t ) p K c Ysp ( t ) Ym ( t )
Direct-Acting (Kc < 0)
output increases as input increases"
p(t) Ym(t)

Reverse-Acting (Kc > 0)

output increases as input decreases"
 Example 2: Flow Control Loop
Chapter 8

Assume FT is direct-acting. Select sign of Kc so

that KcKv > 0

1.) Air-to-open (fail close) valve ==> ?

2.) Air-to-close (fail open) valve ==> ?

Consequences of wrong controller action??

 Transfer Function for Proportional Control:
Let p(t) p(t) - p
Then controller input/output relation can written as
p(t) K c e(t)
Take Laplace transform of each side,
Chapter 8

P(s) K c E(s)
or
P(s)
Kc
E(s)

INTEGRAL CONTROL ACTION

Synonyms: "reset", "floating control"
P(s) 1
t
1
p( t ) p e( t )dt
I 0 E(s) Is
I reset time (or integral time) - adjustable
 Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
t
integral provides memory of e
1
p( t ) p K c e( t ) e( t )dt most popular controller
I 0
Response to unit step change in e:
Chapter 8
 Integral action eliminates steady-state error
(i.e., offset) Why??? e 0 p is changing with
time until e = 0, where p reaches steady state.
Transfer function for PI control P(s) 1
K c 1
E(s) Is
Chapter 8
 Some controllers are calibrated in 1/I
("repeats per minute") instead of I .

For PI controllers, p is not adjustable.

Chapter 8

Derivative Control Action

Ideal derivative action
de
p( t ) p D
dt
Used to improve dynamic response of the
controlled variable
Derivative kick (use -dym/dt )
Use alone?
Chapter 8
 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
Now we consider the combination of the proportional, integral,
and derivative control modes as a PID controller.
Many variations of PID control are used in practice.
Next, we consider the three most common forms.
Chapter 8

Parallel Form of PID Control

The parallel form of the PID control algorithm (without a
derivative filter) is given by

1 t de t
p t p Kc e t 0 e t * dt * D (8-13)
I dt
 The corresponding transfer function is:

P s 1
K c 1 D s (8-14)
E s I s
Chapter 8

P s I s 1 D s 1
Kc (8-15)
E s s
I D 1
s
 Expanded Form of PID Control
In addition to the well-known series and parallel forms, the
expanded form of PID control in Eq. 8-16 is sometimes used:
t de t
p t p K c e t K I e t * dt * K D (8-16)
0 dt
Chapter 8

Features of PID Controllers

Elimination of Derivative and Proportional Kick
One disadvantage of the previous PID controllers is that a
sudden change in set point (and hence the error, e) will cause the
derivative term momentarily to become very large and thus
provide a derivative kick to the final control element.
Chapter 8
 Automatic and Manual Control Modes
Automatic Mode
Controller output, p(t), depends on e(t), controller
constants, and type of controller used.
( PI vs. PID etc.)
Chapter 8

Manual Mode
Controller output, p(t), is adjusted manually.
Manual Mode is very useful when unusual
conditions exist:
plant start-up
plant shut-down
emergencies
Percentage of controllers "on manual ??
(30% in 2001, Honeywell survey)
 Digital PID Controller

t n 1 D
pn p K c en ek en en 1
t
14I 2k 143 1 44 2D 4 43
I
finite difference approximation
Chapter 8

where,
t = the sampling period (the time between
successive samples of the controlled variable)
p n = controller output at the nth sampling
instant, n=1,2,
e n = error at the nth sampling unit
velocity form - see Equation (8-19)
(pn)- incremental change
Chapter 8
 Typical Response of Feedback Control Systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a
sustained disturbance occurs (e.g., step change in
disturbance variable); y > 0 is off-spec.
Chapter 8
 No control
Increasing KC (Kc=0)

y
Chapter 8

0
Time

Figure 8.13 Proportional control: effect of Controller gain

y
Increasing D

Time

Figure 8.15 PID control: effect of derivative time

 Increasing I
Increasing KC
y
y

0 0
Chapter 8

Time Time
(a) (b)

Figure 8.14 Proportional-integral control: (a) effect of integral time, (b) effect of controller gain

integral action ~ Kc / I
 Summary of the Characteristics of the Most
Commonly Used Controller Modes
1. Two Position:
Inexpensive.
Extremely simple.
Chapter 8

2. Proportional:
Simple.
Inherently stable when properly tuned.
Easy to tune.
Experiences offset at steady state. (OK for level
control)
3. Proportional plus integral:
No offset.
Better dynamic response than reset alone.
Possibilities exist for instability due to lag
introduced.
 4. Proportional plus derivative:
Stable.
Less offset than proportional alone (use of
higher gain possible).
Reduces lags, i.e., more rapid response.
Chapter 8

5. Proportional plus integral plus derivative:

Most complex
Rapid response
No offset.
Best control if properly tuned.
 Example 3: Liquid Level Control
Control valves are air-to-open
Level transmitters are direct acting
Chapter 8
 Question:
1. Type of controller action? Select Kc so that
Kc Kv K p 0
Chapter 8

(a) air-to-open valve: sign of Kv?

(b) sign of process gain?
Chapter 8

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