Emotions

Basic Emotions
Paul Ekman and Carroll Izard
Insist that there are a limited number of basic emotions

Basic emotions
Emotions that are found in all cultures, that are reflected in the same facial
expressions across cultures, and that emerge in children according to their
biological timetable

Ekman
Suggested considering emotions as families
The anger family might range from annoyed to irritated, angry, livid, and, finally,
enraged
 Expression of Emotion
Range of emotion
Ekman and Friesen
Claim there are subtle distinctions in the facial expression of a single emotion that convey
its intensity

Development of facial expressions

Like the motor skills of crawling and walking, facial expressions of emotions develop
according to a biological timetable of maturation
Consistency of emotional development across individual infants and across cultures
supports the idea that emotional expression is inborn
 Expression of Emotion
Universality of facial expressions -Darwin

First to study the relationship between emotions and facial expressions

Believed that the facial expression of emotion was an aid to survival because it enabled
people to communicate their internal states and react to emergencies before they
developed language

Maintained that most emotions, and the facial expressions that convey them, are
genetically inherited and characteristic of the entire human species
 Universality
Expression of Emotion
of facial
expressions -Scherer and
Wallbott
Also found important cultural
differences in the ways emotions
are elicited and regulated and in
how they are shared socially
Found very extensive overlap in the
patterns of emotional experiences
reported across cultures in 37
different counties on 5 continents
What is Emotion?
Emotions are a mix of:

Physiological activation (bodily response)

Expressive actions (behaviors)

Conscious experience (thoughts and feelings)

How Do We Experience Emotion?

Question: Do our bodily responses come before or after an emotional

experience?
Do we feel sad because we are crying, or do we cry because were feeling sad?
When you see a snake, your pulse races
Are you feeling afraid because your pulse is racing, or is
your pulse racing because you feel afraid?

William James & Carl Lange: James Lange Theory

We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble.
Feelings follow your bodys response
In a nutshell

James-Lange Theory - our experience of emotion

is our awareness of our physiological responses to
emotion-arousing stimuli
Body then feelings
Ex. Im driving on ice and my car skids, after I
gain control my heart is pounding and Im feeling
fear
 James-Lange Theory
Your feeling of fear is experienced after
you are aware of a physiological response

Sight of Pounding Fear

oncoming heart (emotion)
car (arousal)
(perception of
stimulus)
 James- Lange Theory
When we see a vicious- looking dog growl at us, our sympathetic nervous
system (part of autonomic nervous system that activates our fight/
flight response, increases heart rate, etc.) kicks in, we begin to run
immediately, and then we become aware that we are afraid
This theory suggests we can change our feelings by changing our behaviour
Consistent with facial-feedback hypothesis: our facial expressions affect
our emotional experiences. Ex. induces positive moods & :( induces
negative moods
 Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon physiologist & Philip Bard - physiologist

Physiological arousal and our emotional experience occur simultaneously

You see a snake, the information is sent to the thalamus, which relays the signals simultaneously
to the limbic system (emotional centre) and to the frontal lobes (cognitive centre)
Physiological arousal & emotions = happen at the same time
When we see vicious dog growling, bodily arousal & fear we feel happen at the same time

Your heart begins pounding as you experience fear - one does not cause the other
 Cannon-Bard Theory

Pounding
heart Emotion-arousing stimuli
(arousal) simultaneously trigger:
Sight of physiological responses (autonomic
oncoming nervous system incl frontal lobes)
car
(perception of
subjective experience of emotion
(information sent to the limbic
stimulus)
system)

Fear
(emotion)
Schachters Two-Factor Theory

Stanley Schachter said that emotions have 2

ingredients:
physical arousal
a cognitive label

Our experience of emotion grows from our

awareness of our bodys response to stimuli (like
James-Lange)

Emotions are physiologically similar (like Cannon-

Bard) thus an emotional experience requires a
conscious interpretation of the arousal
Ex. Of two-factor theory
Imagine that after an invigorating run you come home to find a message
that you got accepted into the university of your dreams or your dream
job. With arousal lingering form the run, would you feel more elated than
if you receive this news after awakening from a nap?
Schachter-Singer Two factor theory

A conscious interpretation of the arousal is needed to

experience emotion
A physiological arousal can be experienced as one emotion or another depending on
how we interpret and label it
Basically: we infer emotion from arousal & then label it according to our cognitive
explanation for the arousal
Spillover Effect

Spillover Effect - sometimes our arousal response to one event spills over
into our response to the next event
You may meet someone at the gym after a work out and while you are talking to
the person you recognize that your heart rate is up, youre flushed, you may
misinterpret this as having feelings for the person, when in fact you may just still
be worked up from your workout.
Diff between two-factory theory & spillover effect is that youre happy about both
its just that youre more elated about the job because of the run whereas
spillover youre misinterpreting your arousal as feelings for something that isnt
there
 Spillover Effect:
You go to a scary movie with your date and you are physiologically aroused from the
movie; some of this arousal may linger and you may misinterpret it after the movie
as admiration for your date
Schachter & Singer Experiment:
Schachter and Singer aroused college men with injections of
the hormone epinephrine
After the injection the men went to the waiting room where
they sat with someone who was either euphoric or irritated
As they observed this person, they felt their heart race,
body flush, and breathing become more rapid
They attributed their arousal to the drug but what if they
had been told the injection would produce no effects?
Another group of subjections caught the apparent
emotion of who they were with and became happy if the
accomplice was acting euphoric and testy if the accomplice
was acting irritated
Study suggests emotional arousal can intensify any emotion
Schachters Theory

Stimulus Perception Bodily

(Tiger) (Interpretation arousal
of stimulus-- (Pounding
danger) heart)

Emotion
(Fear)

Type Intensity
Perception and thought about a stimulus influence the type of emotion
felt
Degree of bodily arousal influences the intensity of emotion felt
 Schachters Two-Factor Theory
To experience emotion one must:
be physically aroused
cognitively label the arousal

Pounding
heart
(arousal)
Sight of Fear
oncoming (emotion)
car
(perception of
stimulus)

Cognitive
label

Im afraid
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Can smiling make you feel happy?
Yes!
James Laird and others (1989)
Facial Feedback Hypothesis: The idea that the muscular
movements involved in certain facial expressions trigger the
corresponding emotions
Ex. Activating 1 smiling muscle by holding a pen in the teeth is
enough to enhance positive feelings. Smile on the outside &
youll feel better on the inside
Emotional Contagion
Emotional Contagion
Therapists catch clients feelings
Parents communicate their feelings to their children & vice versa
Friends resonate to each others moods

Hatfield et al. (1993)

Some forms of emotional contagion are far more subtle and automatic
We catch emotions by unconsciously engaging in motor mimicry (Ex. Someone
winces at anothers injury)
Automatically imitate other peoples facial expressions, gestures, and postures
We then come to feel as well as look as others do
Example: smiling faces of others at a party, expressions of grief during mourning
 Two Dimensions of Emotion
People in various cultures place emotions on two
dimensions:
Valence - Pleasant versus Unpleasant
an objects quality of attractiveness to the individual
Valence can be positive or negative. += pleasant/relaxed/happy; - = unpleasant/sad/angry

Positive
Arousal - Low versus high valence

pleasant joy
Low relaxation High
arousal arousal
sadness fear
anger

Negative
valence
Do you remember what the three Elements of
Emotional Experience are?

1. Cognitive Component
2. Physiological Component
3. Behavioral Component
 Cognitive Component

Richard Lazarus
First step in an emotional sequence is
cognitive appraisal of the situation
Appraisal determines which emotion you feel.
i.e. What should I be feeling in this situation?
 Physiological Component
Occurs through the actions of the autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic division
directs the adrenal glands to release stress hormones
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Increased heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar

Parasympathetic
Active once crisis has passed
Calms the body
 Arousal and Performance
Low Arousal good for hard tasks, high arousal good for easy tasks*

Performance peaks
at lower levels of
arousal for difficult
tasks, and at
higher levels for
easy or well-
learned tasks
 The Amygdala and Fear
A visual stimulus can travel to the amygdala and trigger a
physiological response
The emotion of fear

Feelings
Arise from a second, slower pathway that travels through the amygdala
to the higher cortex
Using information from different parts of the brain, the cortex analyzes frightening stimuli in
detail and sends a message back down to the amygdala

Double wiring can cause problems

Neural connections from the cortex down to the amygdala are less well
developed than are connections from the amygdala back to the cortex
Amygdala can exert a greater influence on the cortex than vice versa
Once an emotion is turned on, its difficult to turn off
Cognition and Emotion

The brains shortcut

for emotions
 Measures of Physiological
Responses: GSR
Galvanic skin response (GSR)
Measures autonomic (involuntary) activation
Assesses the skins electrical conductivity when
sweat gland activity increases
High conductance (sweating) indicates
sympathetic nervous system arousal
Low conductance indicates parasympathetic
activity
Body is beginning to calm
Emotion and Physiology
Autonomic nervous system controls
physiological arousal
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
(arousing) (calming)
EYES
Pupils dilate Pupils contract
SALIVATION
Decreases Increases
SKIN
Perspires Dries
RESPIRATION
Increases Decreases
HEART
Accelerates Slows
DIGESTION
Inhibits Activates
ADRENAL
Secrete stress Decreases
GLANDS
hormones secretion of
stress
hormones
Polygraph (lie detector)
Device that measures
autonomic fluctuations
that accompany emotion
(respiration, heart rate,
perspiration changes,
GSR) while a person is
questioned.
An emotion detector or
fear detection test, in
actuality.
Measuring Physiological
Responses: The Polygraph
How the polygraph works:
If your physiological reactions to the critical questions are weaker
than to the control questions = youre truthful
Polygraph cant distinguish between anxiety, irritation and guilt
they all prompt physiological reactivity
Measuring Physiological
Responses: The Polygraph
Irrelevant Question: Whats your name? (getting you ready to answer
questions)
Control Question
Have you ever stolen anything?
Relevant Question
Did you steal $3000 from your boss?
Relevant > Control --> Lie
If physiological arousal to the critical/relevant questions are lower than to
control questions, the examiner infers you are telling the truth
The Polygraph in which case is the
subject lying?

Respiration

Perspiration

Heart rate

Control
Relevant Control
Relevant
question (a)
question question (b)
question
Polygraph Tests

Polygraph tests measure emotion, which may or may not be due to deceit
Inaccurate often enough that they are deemed too unreliable to be
submitted as evidence in most types of courtrooms
9 out 10 psychologist believe the polygraph can be beaten
Cannot distinguish between guilty lying and fearful honesty
Never take a lie detector test if you are innocent.
Emotion: The Polygraph

50 Innocents
50 Thieves
1/3 of innocent
declared guilty
1/4 of guilty
declared
innocent (from
Kleinmuntz &
Szucko, 1984)
Three Elements of Emotional
Experience
Behavioral Component
Emotions are expressed through body language and facial expressions
Humans reveal their emotions both verbally and nonverbally
Expressive Behaviors observable behavioral indications of emotions
Non-verbal communication (majority of our communication)
Body language
Facial Expression (primary display of emotion)
Non-Verbal Communication
We read fear and anger mostly from the eyes, happiness from the
mouth
Can look for indirect clues to give hints of behaviour Ex.
Fidgeting could reveal boredom, or anxiety, a cold stare/
avoidance of eye contact might convey hostility. Folded arms can
signify either irritation or relaxation
Non-Verbal Communication

Can we detect a liar through non-verbal cues?

Paul Ekman and Maureen OSullivan (1991)

With experience and training people can

detect liars (67% - 86% accurate), e.g.,
trained researchers, CIA agents
Intuition alone not very accurate (near
chance)
 Expression of Emotion
Cultural rules for displaying emotion
Display rule
Cultural rules that dictate how emotions should be expressed and when and where their
expression is appropriate
Often, a societys display rules require people to give evidence of certain emotions
that they may not actually feel or to disguise their true feelings
Cole
Found that 3-year-old girls, when given an unattractive gift, smiled nevertheless
They had already learned a display rule and signaled an emotion they very likely did not
feel
Expression of Emotion
Although cultures share a universal facial language for basic emotions,
they differ in how much emotion they express
Cultural rules for displaying emotion
Davis
Found that among first to third graders, girls were better able to hide
disappointment than boys were
Not only can emotions be displayed but not felt, they can also be felt but
not displayed
Most of us learn display rules very early and abide by them most of the time
 Experiencing Emotion

Izard
Believes that learning to self-regulate emotional
expression can help in controlling emotions
Proposes that this approach to the regulation of
emotion might be a useful adjunct to
psychotherapy
Gender differences in experiencing emotion:

David Buss
Has reported that women are far
more likely to feel anger when their
partner is sexually aggressive
Men experience greater anger than
women when their partner withholds
sex
Experienced Emotion
Fear
How is fear adaptive?
An alarm system that prepares our bodies to flee danger. Ex. Fear of injury can protect us
from harm

How is fear learned?

Observation and Conditioning (e.g., traumatic event). Ex. As infants experience falls &
near falls while becoming mobile, they begin to fear heights
911 --> People afraid to fly
Key brain structure?
Amygdala

Wired to all parts of the brain that produce bodily

symptoms of extreme fear, such as diarrhea or shortness of
breath
Experienced Emotion
Anger
Causes of anger?
Most commonly in response to friends or loved ones perceived misdeeds
Especially common when another persons act seemed willful, unjustified, and
avoidable
Blameless annoyances can also make us angry
Chronic hostility - when anger fuels physically or verbally aggressive acts
Linked to heart disease
Controlled expressions of anger are more adaptive than either hostile outbursts or
pent-up angry feelings Talking things over can lessen aggravation
Experienced Emotion
Catharsis Hypothesis? True or False?

Idea that we reduce anger by releasing it through

aggressive action or fantasy. Sometimes works if all 3
things are present:
-your retaliation is directed against the provoker
-your retaliation is justifiable
-your target is not intimidating
Expressing anger can be temporarily calming if it does not leave us feeling guilty or
anxious
Venting angry feelings often magnifies the underlying hostility or serves to be habit
forming
More often the case that expressing anger leads to more anger
Can provoke retaliation
Can magnify the anger
Experienced Emotion
How should we handle anger?
Waiting - what goes up must come down
Avoid being chronically angry over every little annoyance
Do not sulk and continue to think about your reasons for being angry
Rumination only increases anger
Dont keep all your anger in only to explode at a tiny provocation
Calm yourself in other ways
Exercising
Hobbies
Confiding feelings to friends
Experienced Emotion: Happiness
Happiness/unhappiness colors everything
Increasing interest in positive psychology
Subjective well-being
Usually assessed as either feelings of happiness (a high ratio of positive to
negative feelings) or as a sense of satisfaction in life
Measures of subjective well-being are often used along with objective
measures of well-being (physical and economic indicators) to evaluate quality
of life
Does Money Buy Happiness?
Many people believe they would be happier if they had more money

Happiness associated with money may be temporary

The need to belong or have close relationships with others, not money,
appears to distinguish between happy and unhappy individuals
 Why? Because Happiness is Relative

Adaptation-Level Principle
Happiness is relative to our prior subjective experiences
What makes you happy might not make another person happy

Seeking happiness through material achievements requires an

ever-increasing abundance of things

If our current condition increases, we feel temporary pleasure.

Consequently, we adapt to this new level which than becomes
normal and we require more to make us happy
 Happiness is Relative
Relative Deprivation Principle

We are unhappy if we believe we are worse off than

others with whom we compare ourselves

Middle and upper class individuals feel more satisfied

when they compare themselves to those who are
relatively poor

However, once people reach a certain level of success,

they start to compare themselves to those at the same
level of success or at levels higher than they have
attained
e.g. entering college