Introduction, Measurement,

Estimating
 The Nature of Science
Observation: important first step toward scientific
theory; requires imagination to tell what is
important.
Theories: created to explain observations; will make
predictions.
Observations will tell if the prediction is accurate,
and the cycle goes on.
Physics and Its Relation to Other Fields

Physics is needed in both

architecture and engineering.
Other fields that use physics,
and make contributions to it:
physiology, zoology, life
sciences,
 Physics and Its Relation to Other Fields

Communication between architects and engineers

is essential if disaster is to be avoided.
 Models, Theories, and Laws
Models are very useful during the process of
understanding phenomena. A model creates mental
pictures; care must be taken to understand the limits of
the model and not take it too seriously.
A theory is detailed and can give testable predictions.
A law is a brief description of how nature behaves in a
broad set of circumstances.
A principle is similar to a law, but applies to a narrower
range of phenomena.
 Physical Quantities
A physical quantity is a quantifiable or
assignable property ascribed to a
parti- cular phenomenon, body, or
substance.

Length Electri
Time
c
Charge
 Units of Measure
A unit is a particular physical quantity with
which other quantities of the same kind are
compared in order to express their value.
A meter is an established
unit for measuring
length.
Measuring Based on definition, we
diameter of disk. say the diameter is 0.12
m or 12 centimeters.
 Measurement and Uncertainty; Significant
Figures
No measurement is exact; there is always some
uncertainty due to limited instrument accuracy and
difficulty reading results.

The photograph to the left

illustrates this it would be
difficult to measure the width
of this 2x4 to better than a
millimeter.
 Measurement and Uncertainty; Significant
Figures

Estimated uncertainty is written with a sign; for

example:
Percent uncertainty is the ratio of the uncertainty to the
measured value, multiplied by 100:
 Measurement and Uncertainty; Significant
Figures
The number of significant figures is the number of reliably
known digits in a number. It is usually possible to tell the
number of significant figures by the way the number is
written:
i. 23.21 cm has 4 significant figures
ii. 0.062 cm has 2 significant figures (the initial
zeroes dont count)
iii. 80 km is ambiguous it could have 1 or 2
significant figures. If it has 3, it should be written 80.0
km.
 Measurement and Uncertainty; Significant
Figures
When multiplying or dividing numbers, the result has
as many significant figures as the number used in the
calculation with the fewest significant figures.
Example: 11.3 cm x 6.8 cm = 77 cm
When adding or subtracting, the answer is no more
accurate than the least accurate number used.
Measurement and Uncertainty; Significant
Figures

Calculators will not give you the right

number of significant figures; they
usually give too many but sometimes
give too few (especially if there are
trailing zeroes after a decimal point).
The top calculator shows the result of 2.0
/ 3.0.
The bottom calculator shows the result
of 2.5 x 3.2.
 Units, Standards, and the SI System
Quantity Unit Standard
Length Meter Length of the path traveled by
light in 1/299,792,458 second.

Time Second Time required for 9,192,631,770

periods of radiation emitted by
cesium atoms

Mass Kilogram Platinum cylinder in

International Bureau of
Weights and Measures, Paris
 Scientific Notation
Scientific notation provides a short-hand method for
expressing very small and very large numbers.
Examples:
0000000001
. 109
6 93,000,000 mi = 9.30 x 107 mi
0000001
. 10
0001
. 10 3 0.00457 m = 4.57 x 10 -3
m

1 100
876 m 8.76 x 10 2 m
1000 103 v
0.0037 s 3.7 x 10-3s
1,000,000 106
vv 3.24 x 10 55
3.24 x 10 m/sm/s

1,000,000,000 10 9
Scientific Notation and Significant Figures

With Scientific notation one can easily keep track of

significant digits by using only those digits that are necessary
in the mantissa and letting the power of ten locate the
decimal.
Example. Express the number 0.0006798
m, accurate to three significant digits.

Mantissa x 10-4 6.80

6.80 x 10-4m
x 10 -4
m
m
The 0 is significantthe last digit in
doubt.
Units, Standards, and the SI
System

These are the standard SI

prefixes for indicating powers of
10. Many are familiar; Y, Z, E, h,
da, a, z, and y are rarely used.
 Units, Standards, and the SI System

We will be working in the SI system, where the basic

units are kilograms, meters, and seconds.

Other systems: cgs; units are grams,

centimeters, and seconds.

British engineering system has force

instead of mass as one of its basic
quantities, which are feet, pounds,
and seconds.
 SI Unit of Measure for Length
One meter is the length of path traveled
by a light wave in a vacuum in a time
interval of 1/299,792,458 seconds.

1m
1
t second
299, 792, 458
 SI Unit of Measure for Mass

The kilogram is the unit of mass - it is

equal to the mass of the international
prototype of the kilogram.
This standard is the only
one that requires
comparison to an artifact
for its validity. A copy of the
standard is kept by the
International Bureau of
Weights and Measures.
 SI Unit of Measure for Time

The second is the duration of 9 192 631

770 periods of the radiation corresponding
to the transition between the two hyperfine
levels of the ground state of the cesium
133 atom.
Cesium Fountain
Atomic Clock: The
primary time and
frequency standard
for the USA (NIST)
 Converting Units
Converting between metric units, for example from kg
to g, is easy, as all it involves is powers of 10.
Converting to and from British units is considerably
more work.

For example, given that 1

m = 3.28084 ft, this 8611-m
mountain is 28251 feet
high.
Procedure for Converting Units
1. Write down quantity to be converted.
2. Define each unit in terms of desired
unit.
3. For each definition, form two
conversion factors, one being the
reciprocal of the other.
4. Multiply the quantity to be converted
by those factors that will cancel all but
the desired units.
Example 1: Convert 12 in. to centimeters
given that 1 in. = 2.54 cm.
Step 1: Write down
quantity to be converted. 12 in.

Step 2. Define each 1 in. = 2.54

unit in terms of desired
cm
unit. 1 in.
Step 3. For each
definition, form two 2.54 cm
conversion factors, one
2.54 cm
being the reciprocal of
the other. 1 in
 Example 1 (Cont.): Convert 12 in. to
centimeters given that 1 in. = 2.54 cm.
1 in. 2.54 cm
From Step 3. or
2.54 cm 1 in
Step 4. Multiply by those factors that will
cancel all but the desired units. Treat unit
symbols algebraically. 2
1 in. in.
12 in. 4.72 Wrong
2.54 cm cm Choice!

2.54 cm Correct
12 in. 30.5 cm Answer!
1 in.
Example 2: Convert 60 mi/h to units of km/s
given 1 mi. = 5280 ft and 1 h = 3600 s.
Step 1: Write down mi
quantity to be converted. 60
h
Note: Write units so that numerators and
denominators of fractions are clear.
Step 2. Define each unit in terms of desired
units.
1 mi. = 5280 ft

1 h = 3600 s
 Ex. 2 (Cont): Convert 60 mi/h to units of ft/s
given that 1 mi. = 5280 ft and 1 h = 3600 s.
Step 4. Choose Factors to cancel non-
desired units.

mi 5280 ft 1 h
60 88.0 m/s
h 1 mi 3600 s

Treating unit conversions algebraically

helps to see if a definition is to be used as
a multiplier or as a divider.
 Uncertainty of Measurement

All measurements are assumed to be

approximate with the last digit
estimated.
The length in
cm here is
0 1 2
written as:
1.43 cm

The last digit 3 is estimated as 0.3

of the interval between 3 and 4.
 Estimated Measurements (Cont.)

Length = 1.43 cm 0 1 2

The last digit is estimated, but is significant.

It tells us the actual length is between 1.40
cm and 1.50. It would not be possible to
estimate yet another digit, such as 1.436.

This measurement of length can be given

in three significant digitsthe last is
estimated.
 Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis
Dimensions of a quantity are the base units that
make it up; they are generally written using square
brackets.
Example: Speed = distance / time
Dimensions of speed: [L/T]
Quantities that are being added or subtracted must
have the same dimensions. In addition, a quantity
calculated as the solution to a problem should
have the correct dimensions.
 Significant Digits and Numbers
When writing numbers, zeros used ONLY to
help in locating the decimal point are NOT
significantothers are. See examples.

0.0062 cm 2 significant figures

4.0500 cm 5 significant figures
0.1061 cm 4 significant figures
50.0 cm 3 significant figures
50,600 cm 3 significant figures
Rule
Rule 1.
1. When
When approximate
approximate numbers
numbers areare
multiplied
multiplied oror divided,
divided, thethe number
number of
of
significant
significant digits
digits in
in the
the final
final answer
answer isis the
the
same
same asas the
the number
number of of significant
significant digits
digits in
in
the
the least
least accurate
accurate ofof the
the factors.
factors.
45 N
Example: P 6.97015 N/m 2
(3.22 m)(2.005 m)

Least significant factor (45) has only two

(2) digits so only two are justified in the
answer.
The appropriate way
PP =
= 7.0
7.0 N/m
N/m 22
to write the answer
is:
Rule
Rule 1.
1. When
When approximate
approximate numbers
numbers areare
multiplied
multiplied oror divided,
divided, thethe number
number of
of
significant
significant digits
digits in
in the
the final
final answer
answer isis the
the
same
same asas the
the number
number of of significant
significant digits
digits in
in
the
the least
least accurate
accurate ofof the
the factors.
factors.
45 N
Example: P 6.97015 N/m 2
(3.22 m)(2.005 m)

Least significant factor (45) has only two

(2) digits so only two are justified in the
answer.
The appropriate way
PP =
= 7.0
7.0 N/m
N/m 22
to write the answer
is:
Rule
Rule 2.
2. When
When approximate
approximate numbers
numbers areare added
added
or
or subtracted,
subtracted, the
the number
number of of significant
significant digits
digits
should
should equal
equal the
the smallest
smallest number
number of of decimal
decimal
places
places of
of any
any term
term in
in the
the sum
sum oror difference.
difference.

Ex: 9.65 cm + 8.4 cm 2.89 cm = 15.16

cm
Note that the least precise measure is 8.4
cm. Thus, answer must be to nearest tenth
of cm even though it requires 3 significant
digits.
The appropriate way 15.2
15.2 cm
cm
to write the answer
is:
 Example 3. Find the area of a metal plate
that is 95.7 cm by 32 cm.

A = LW = (8.71 cm)(3.2 cm) = 27.872 cm2

Only 2 digits justified: AA = 28 cm
= 28 cm 22

Example 4. Find the perimeter of the plate

that is 95.7 cm long and 32 cm wide.
p = 8.71 cm + 3.2 cm + 8.71 cm + 3.2
cm
Ans. to tenth of cm: pp =
= 23.8
23.8 cm
cm
 Rounding Numbers
Remember that significant figures apply to
your reported result. Rounding off your
numbers in the process can lead to errors.
Rule:
Rule: Always
Always retain
retain at
at least
least one
one more
more
significant
significant figure
figure in
in your
your calculations
calculations
than
than the
the number
number you you are
are entitled
entitled to
to
report
report in
in the
the result.
result.
With calculators, it is usually easier to just
keep all digits until you report the result.
 Rules for Rounding Numbers

Rule 1. If the remainder beyond the last digit

to be reported is less than 5, drop the last
digit.
Rule 2. If the remainder is greater than 5,
increase the final digit by 1.

Rule 3. To prevent rounding bias, if the

remainder is exactly 5, then round the last
digit to the closest even number.
 Examples
Rule 1. If the remainder beyond the last digit
to be reported is less than 5, drop the last
digit.
Round the following to 3 significant figures:
4.99499 becomes 4.99

0.09403 becomes
0.0940
95,632 becomes 95,600

0.02032 becomes 0.0203

 Examples
Rule 2. If the remainder is greater than 5,
increase the final digit by 1.
Round the following to 3 significant figures:
2.3452 becomes 2.35

0.08757 becomes 0.0876

23,650.01 becomes 23,700

4.99502 becomes 5.00

 Examples
Rule 3. To prevent rounding bias, if the
remainder is exactly 5, then round the last
digit to the closest even number.
Round the following to 3 significant figures:

3.7750 becomes 3.78

0
0.024450 becomes 0.0244

96,6500 becomes 96,600

5.09500 becomes 5.10

 Summary of Chapter 1
Theories are created to explain observations, and
then tested based on their predictions.
A model is like an analogy; it is not intended to be a
true picture, but just to provide a familiar way of
envisioning a quantity.
A theory is much more well-developed, and can
make testable predictions; a law is a theory that can
be explained simply, and which is widely applicable.
Dimensional analysis is useful for checking
calculations.
 Summary of Chapter 1
Measurements can never be exact; there is
always some uncertainty. It is important to write
them, as well as other quantities, with the correct
number of significant figures.
The most common system of units in the world is
the SI system.
When converting units, check dimensions to see
that the conversion has been done properly.
Order-of-magnitude estimates can be very helpful.