Variable

Something which can take different numerical values

for different individuals or objects.
Anything which has more than one value is called a
variable.
For example heights of patients, weights of patients
etc.
It has two types
1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative ( has further two types Discrete and
Continuous)
Qualitative Variable

A variable which differ in quality from one individual

to another individual.
It is also called attribute or categorical variable.
For example = beauty, intelligence, severity of
disease, color, educational level.
These variables are not measured numerically but
these type of data is simply obtained by noting the
presence or absence of the attribute, and then
counting that how many do or do not possess the
attribute.
Qualitative Variable

It is also called categorical variable.

If the categorical variable has only two levels or
categories, it is called binary or dichotomous
variable, e-g male or female, recovered or not
recovered, effective or in-effective treatment.
Quantitative Variable

Characteristics which can be measured numerically and vary from one

individual to another.
Examples are, Height, Weight, Temperature etc.

Discrete Variable: is a variable which can take some selected values in

a given interval, or a variable whose value is taken from some counting
process.

Examples; No. of patient, No. of Wards, No. of students.

Continuous Variable: is a variable can take any value within an

interval or whose value is taken from some measuring process.

Examples; B.P, Temp, Height, Weight etc.

Binary/Dichotomous Variable

It can have only two possible alternatives.

Example; the presence of liver disease is YES or NO.
Gender is either Male or FEMALE (if the third one is
ruled out).
Even in the case of Blood Groups.
Example; Blood Group B versus all the other Blood
Groups.
The outcomes of toss a coin are either Head or Tail.
Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent Variable; is the one, which is responsible

for the change, for example, drug, smoking, therapy etc.

It can be continuous or categorical.

Dependent Variable; is the response of the

independent variable.

It can be continuous or categorical.

We manipulate the Independent Variable to see the

Dependent Variable or Change in Dependent Variable.
Measurement Scales

The process of assigning numeric to characteristic is

called Measurement.
Scale is the Device to measure the level or Degree of

characteristics.

To measure Temperature we use thermometer, here

Thermometer is the Device. ( It can have Celsius or
Fahrenheit Scales on it, and the respective
measurements are like 97.8 F).
Types of Measurement Scales

There are four measurement scales

1. Nominal Scale

2. Ordinal Scale

3. Interval Scale

4. Ratio Scale

Remember the Mnemonic NOIR for these.

Measurement Scales

Nominal and ordinal scales are non-metric measurement scales.

Nominal scales are the least sophisticated type of measurement and are

used only to qualitatively classify or categorize.

They have no absolute zero point and cannot be ordered in a

quantitative sequence, and there is no equal unit of measurement

between categories.
In other words, the numbers assigned to the variables have no

mathematical meaning beyond describing the characteristic or attribute

under considerationthey do not imply amounts of an attribute or
characteristic.
Measurement Scales

This makes it impossible to conduct standard mathematical

operations such as addition, subtraction, division, and

multiplication.
Common examples of nominal scale data include gender,

religious and political affiliation, place of birth, city of

residence, ethnicity, marital status, eye and hair color, and
employment status.
Notice that each of these variables is purely descriptive and

cannot be manipulated mathematically.

Measurement Scales
The second type of non-metric measurement scale is known as the ordinal

scale.

Unlike the nominal scale, ordinal scale measurement is characterized by the

ability to measure a variable in terms of both identity and magnitude.

This makes it a higher level of measurement than the nominal scale because the

ordinal scale allows for the categorization of a variable and its relative

magnitude in relation to other variables.

Variables can be ranked in relation to the amount of the attribute possessed.

One way to think about ordinal data is by using the concept of greater than or

less than, which incidentally also highlights the main weakness of ordinal data.
Measurement Scales

Interval and ratio scales are the two types of metric measurement scales,
and are quantitative in nature.
Collectively, they represent the most sophisticated level of measurement

and lend themselves well to sophisticated and powerful statistical

techniques.
The interval scale of measurement builds on ordinal measurement by

providing information about both order and distance between values of

variables.
The numbers on an interval scale are scaled at equal distances, but there is

no absolute zero point.

Instead, the zero point is arbitrary.

Measurement Scales

On either the Fahrenheit or Celsius scale, zero does not represent a complete

absence of temperature, yet the quantitative or measurement difference

between 10 and 20 degrees is the same as the difference between 40 and 50

degrees.

There might be a qualitative difference between the two temperature ranges,

but the quantitative difference is identical10 units or degrees.

The second type of metric measurement scale is the ratio scale of

measurement.

The properties of the ratio scale are identical to those of the interval scale,

except that the ratio scale has an absolute zero point, which means that all

mathematical operations are possible.

Measurement Scales
Numerous examples of ratio scale data exist in our daily lives.

Money is a pertinent example. It is possible to have no (or zero) moneya zero

balance in a checking account, for example.

This is an example of an absolute zero point. Unlike with interval scale data,

multiplication and division are now possible.

Ten dollars is 10 times more than 1 dollar, and 20 dollars is twice as much as 10

dollars. If we have 100 dollars and give away half, we are left with 50 dollars,

which is 50 times more than 1 dollar.

Other examples include height, weight, and time.

Ratio data is the highest level of measurement and allows for the use of

sophisticated statistical techniques.

Examples of Measurement Scales

Nominal Scale e.g.

Sex= M/F
Status=Live/Dead
Locality=Rural/Urban

Ordinal Scale e.g.

Degree of illness= Mild/Moderate/Severe
Condition of Patient= Better/Same/Worst
Interval Scale e.g.
Temperature (C, F)
DATA

Data is a set of numerical observations like, number of

students, temp. of patients e-t-c.

A set of ordered data values observed at successive points in a

time is called a Time Series.

A set of data values observed at a fixed point in time is called

Cross-Sectional Data.

Measurement of hourly temperature of patients is a time series

data and measurement of temperature in morning of a group
of patients is a cross-sectional data.
DATA

If Data is based on a single characteristic then data is called

Uni-Variate Data.

Data is also classified into Nominal, Ordinal, Ratio, Interval

Scale.
Data based on nominal scale or variable is called nominal data.

Data based on ordinal scale is called Ordinal data.

Bivariate data has exactly two pieces of information recorded

for each item, like Salt intake and B.P, Height and Weight etc.
DATA

Multivariate data has three or more pieces of

information recorded for each item. If more than two

fold information are taken from the individuals. For
example; Age, Weight, Height of patients.
Chronological Data is a set of observations made on
same phenomenon, recorded in relation to their time
of occurrence. This type of data is also called Time
Series.
Class Activity

The weight of 100 Students is as 65,75,45,92,

..Labs,

What is Variable in it?

What is the Scale of measurement ?

.
Conversion of Data From one Form into Another

Quantitative Data can be converted into Categorical Data using Cut Off

Values.

For example B.P can be turned into nominal variable as defining

B.P 90 mm Hg marked as 1

B.P 90 mm Hg marked as 2

Height can be converted into Ordinal Data as

Short (< 60 Inch) 1

Average (60-65 Inch) 2

Tall ( 65 Inch) 3

But we cannot convert Categorical Data into continuous data.

 Summary of Types of Data

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Logical Order No Yes Yes Yes

Meaningful No No Yes Yes

Interval Group

Relative Zero No No Yes No

True/Absolute No No No Yes
Zero
Quality of Data

It tells us how the data is free from Error, when it was collected from
Patients.
Incomplete history provided by the patient.

Incomplete examination/ Investigation.

Inaccurate medical reports.

Incorrect Diagnosis.

This list is not exhaustive, so to ensure the Quality of Data, these

errors should be eliminated/ minimized adopting certain
measures, like proper planning, training of staff etc.
Sources of Data

The main sources for collection of medical or health related data are as:-
1. Experiments/Trials

2. Surveys/Observations

3. Record/Registration

4. Clinical Practices

5. External Sources

No. 1 and 2 are specially applied to gather data required for some specific
purposes but No. 3 provides ready made data for routine and
continuous information.
Sources of Data

Experiments:- are performed in the labs/wards for investigation to measure the

effectiveness of the treatment. When human beings are involved, experiment is called

Trial.

Surveys/Observations:- surveys are commonly used for epidemiological studies, to see

for prevalence or etc,.

Records/Registration:- data is used in demography and public health practice.

Clinical Practice:- is a source of medical data, like taken during medical history, present

symptoms etc, If the effectiveness of a certain drug is determined under controlled

condition and patients are involved then this practice is called Clinical Trial.

External Sources:- data from sources other than the medical like environment

department, weather bureau etc.

Collection of Data in Surveys

The most important task in research is the collection

of data.
Data is mostly collected on sample basis.

The Data which is Originally collected by the

Agency/Researcher is called Primary Data.

When the Raw Data is given any statistical treatment

it is called Secondary Data.

Collection of Primary Data

It can be collected as

1. Direct Personal Observations

2. Indirect Personal Observations

3. Mail Questionnaire Method

4. Data Collection Through Enumerators

5. Data Collection Through Local Sources

6. Electronic Media
Collection of Secondary Data

It can be collected through

1. Government Offices

2. Semi-Government Offices

3. Newspapers

4. Universities

5. Technical/Trade/Economic/Commercial Journals.
Some Common Statistical Terms

Symbolic Representation: The original observation of a

sample if size n may be represented by the symbols as
x1, x2,x3.xn.

Where the subscript 1,2,3n specify the position of

observation is the sample. For Example Heights of five
patients are 63,65,61,66,59. They will be written as.

x1= 63, x2= 65, x5=59.

Some Common Statistical Terms

Variable:- That can vary from person to person. It is denoted

by X,Y,Z and notion for orderly series is X1,X2,X3.Xn. The
suffix n is symbol for the number in the series.

Sigma:- Its symbol is , stands for summation if the

observation in data.

x= X1+X2+X3Xn.

Let we have the observations 3,4,5,6,7 then x will be=

3+4+5+6+7= 25
Some Common Statistical Terms

Observation:- an event and its measurements such as B.P 180

mm Hg, is a measurement. A set of observations is called data.

Population:- It is an entire group of people, study elements or

subjects under study. Greek Letters denote population values

and small English letters denote sample values. A member of
population is called a Unit. The part of population which is
selected is called sample.

A sample must be representative and large enough to contain

information to answer the question about the population.
Some Common Statistical Terms

Ratio:- is a fraction. The ratio of A to B is the fraction

A/B , e.g. let there are 200 males and 300 females,
the ratio of males to females is 200/300.

Ratio= A/B

Proportion:- it is the ratio of part to total.

Proportion= A/ A+B or Part/Total

For above example it would be written as 200/500.

Some Common Statistical Terms

Model:- the relationship between two or more can be

described mathematically. The instrument or
description of explaining variables is called a Model.
Y= a+bx+
Experiment:- is a planned process of data collection. If
the experiment produces same results under the same
conditions that experiment is called Deterministic or
Non-Probabilistic, on the other hand if can
experiment produces different results under same
conditions it is called Random Experiment.
Mathematical Notation

Summation Operator = Sigma

Inequalities= , , <, >
Factorial = n!= n (n-1)(n-2)(n-3)..3*2*1.