Module Outline

Overview of CBRN weapons

Chemical weapons
Biological weapons
Radiological weapons
Nuclear weapons
International controls on CBRN
weapons and materials

1
Overview of CBRN Weapons
Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear
(CBRN) weapons present special challenges to
nuclear security
These four categories of weapons are often
grouped together as weapons of mass
destruction (WMD)
However, all three categories except nuclear
weapons could also be used in more limited ways
In addition to their physically destructive effects,
CBRN weapons have great potential to cause
psychological fear and panic

2
THE THREAT OF CRIMINAL OR UNAUTHORIZED
ACTS
The threats involve criminals or terrorists acquiring
and using for malicious purposes:
(a) nuclear explosive devices;
(b) nuclear material to build an improvised nuclear
explosive device(IND);
(c) radioactive material to construct a radiological
dispersal device (RDD);
(d) the dispersal of radioactivity through sabotage.
 The Chemical Weapons Threat
Although chemical weapons receive significantly less attention than nuclear
and biological threats, widely proliferated weapons of mass destruction.
Chemical weapons use the toxic properties of chemicals to cause physical
harm ranging from discomfort to death.
Relatively small amounts of chemical weapons can inflict devastating
psychological and physical effects.
The military value of chemical weapons is such that the United States and
the Soviet Union stockpiled tens of thousands of tons during the Cold War.
Countries traditionally have acquired chemical weapons before attempting
to produce biological or nuclear weapons, because they are the least
technologically demanding of the three.
188 countries have joined the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and
have agreed not to develop, produce, stockpile, or use chemical weapons, a
handful of key countriesparticularly in the Middle Eastremain outside
of the treaty.
 What is a Chemical Weapon?
Chemical weapons use several different biochemical properties to
debilitate or kill people, animals, and plants.
Blister agents (sulfur mustard, nitrogen mustard, and lewisite)
cause skin, eye, and lung irritation. Victims eventually develop
painful blisters on their bodies, but usually do not die.
Choking agents cause severe and painful breathing problems,
leading to suffocation. Examples include chlorine gas,
chloropicrin, diphosgene, and phosgene.
Blood agents such as hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride
stop blood from distributing needed oxygen throughout the body.
Nerve agents debilitate the nervous system, causing muscle
contraction, loss of control over bodily functions, and death
within minutes.
Chemical Weapons
Four main categories of chemical weapons were developed for military use
Choking agents
Blister agents
Blood agents
Nerve agents
However, any toxic chemical can be used as a chemical agent
Pesticides (ex: Parathion)
Industrial chemicals (ex: anhydrous ammonia, methyl isocyanate)
Household chemicals (ex: chlorine)
Non-lethal agents could also be used
Lachrymators (tear gas)
Fentanyl (possibly used by security forces in hostage rescue attempt at Nord-
Ost theater, Moscow, 2002)

6
 How are chemical weapons
delivered:

A chemical weapon attack occurs in two phases: delivery and

dissemination. The delivery phase refers to the launching of the rocket,
bomb, or artillery shell. The dissemination phase involves the dispersal of
the chemical agent from the weapon.

Chemical weapons can be delivered via a variety of mechanisms

including but not limited to; ballistic missiles, air dropped gravity bombs,
rockets, artillery shells, aerosol canisters, and mortars.

Dissemination is the most critical phase of a chemical weapon and

generally determines its effectiveness. Generally, dissemination has been
done via explosives that expel the agent laterally.
Chemical Weapons: Choking Agents
Agent U.S. Army Code Persistency Rate of Action
Diphosgene DP Low Variable
Phosgene CG Low Delayed
Chlorine CL Low Rapid
Chloropicrin PS Low Rapid

Mode of Action: Inhalation

Physiological Effects
Fluid builds up in lungs & victim chokes on own fluid
Dry land drowning
Victim dies of oxygen deficiency
Form When Disseminated: Gas
Lethality: Low to medium
Required Defensive Gear: Protective Mask

8
Chemical Weapons: Blister Agents
(Vesicants)
Agent U.S. Army Code Persistency Rate of Action

Sulfur Mustard H, HD Very High Delayed

Nitrogen Mustard HN High Delayed
Phosgene Oxime CX Low Immediate
Lewisite L High Rapid

Mode of Action: Inhalation, Skin Contact

Physiological Effects
Burns skin, mucous membranes, and eyes, causing
large water blisters on exposed skin or in lungs
Primarily used to injure but can be lethal when large
amounts are inhaled
Form When Disseminated: Liquid, Aerosol, Vapor,
Dust
Lethality: Low to medium
Required Defensive Gear: Protective Mask & Clothing
9
Chemical Weapons: Blood Agents
Agent U.S. Army Code Persistency Rate of Action
Hydrogen cyanide AC Low Rapid
Cyanogen chloride CK Low Rapid
Arsine SA Low Delayed

Mode of Action: Inhalation

Physiological Effects of Cyanide
Destroys ability of blood cells to utilize oxygen
Form When Disseminated: Gas
Lethality: Medium to high
Required Defensive Gear: Protective
Mask

10
Chemical Weapons: Nerve Agents
Agent U.S. Army Code Persistency Rate of Action
Tabun GA Low Very Rapid
Sarin GB Low Very Rapid
Soman GD Moderate Very Rapid
Cyclosarin GF Moderate Very Rapid
VX VX Very High Rapid

Modes of Action: Contact (VX-

methylphosphonothioate), Inhalation (G-series)
Physiological Effects
Causes seizures and loss of body control
Exhausts muscles, including heart and diaphragm
Lethal dose can cause death from respiratory failure
in five minutes
Form When Disseminated: Liquid, Vapor, Aerosol
Lethality: High
Required Defensive Gear: Protective Mask & Clothing

11
 How Have Chemical Weapons Been Used in Warfare?
In warfare, chemical weapons have been used against opposing battlefield forces
The introduction of chemical warheads and ballistic missiles has also expanded
the list of potential targets of a chemical weapons attack to include civilian
populations.
Combatants used 124,000 metric tons of chemical weapons (mostly phosgene and
mustard), during World War I.
During World War II, Italy used tear gas and mustard gas during the invasion in
Ethiopia.
During the Japanese invasion of China, a Japanese covert chemical and biological
weapons branch known as Unit 731 used a variety of chemical weapons, including
tear gas, phosgene, mustard gas, and lewisite.
During the Cold War, conflicts in Korea, Afghanistan, and Vietnam involved only
non-lethal riot control agents.
However, Egypt used mustard gas and possibly nerve agents during the North
Yemen Civil War.
During the Iran-Iraq War, Iraq employed blister agents and likely also used nerve
agents against Iranian forces.
 The Threat of Chemical Weapons Terrorism
Terrorist organizations seeking to cause death and injury, as well as
mass panic and economic disruption, would find many attractive
features in chemical weapons.
Very lethal weapons can be made with widely understood techniques
and common equipment, and can be easily concealed until they are
used.
In the mid-1990s, the Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo released self-
produced sarin on multiple occasions. The deadliest incident occurred
when cult members released the nerve agent into the Tokyo subway on
March 20, 1995. The group used an impure and diluted form of sarin in
a terrorist attack on the Tokyo subway, March 20, 1995
12 dead, 100s injured, 600+ hospitalized
Thousands more worried well self-reported to hospitals

Terrorist organizations may also achieve their goals through the

sabotage of chemical plants and shipments .
 How is the International Community Working to
Reduce the Chemical Weapons Threat?
Two international treaties the Geneva Protocol (1925) and the
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) (1993) ban the use of
chemical weapons.
The CWC also bans their development, production, and
stockpiling. CWC members have committed to eliminating any
CW stockpiles they possess.
Since this is a lengthy and complex process, Russia, the
United States, Iraq and Libya have not yet completed
elimination of their CW.
The U.S. Department of State notes that current information
does not rule out the possibility that China and Russia maintain
additional CW stockpiles and production facilities outside their
declared assets.
 What is a Biological Weapon?
Biological weapons use microorganisms and natural toxins to produce disease
in humans, animals, or plants.
Biological weapons can be derived from: bacteria (anthrax, plague, tularemia);
viruses (smallpox, viral hemorrhagic fevers); rickettsia (Q fever and epidemic
typhus); biological toxins (botulinum toxin); and fungi (San Joaquin Valley
fever, myco toxins).
These agents can be deployed as biological weapons when paired with a
delivery system, such as a missile or aerosol device.
The danger associated with a particular pathogen can be measured by how
effectively it kills (lethality); how easily it spreads (infectivity); and how likely
it is to cause disease in an affected organism (virulence).
However, other factors such as ease of dispersal, responsiveness to medical
treatment, the availability of vaccines, the infective dose, and a pathogens
ability to survive during dispersal or storage (stability) affect a pathogens
suitability as a weapon.
Pneumonic plague is highly lethal and contagious, but is generally treatable
with modern medicines.
Biological Weapons
Biological agents fall into two main categories:
pathogens and toxins
Pathogens are living organisms, such as
bacteria or viruses, that produce disease (y.
pestis, b. anthracis, v. major)
Toxins are non-living chemical poisons
produced by living organisms (ricin, botulinum
toxin)
Terrorists could use a wide variety of
pathogens or toxins, but a few have
characteristics that make them likely agents of
choice

16
 List of Bacterial bio-agents

Disease Causative agent

Anthrax Bacillus anthracis (N or TR)
Brucellosis (bovin) Brucella abortus
Brucellosis (caprine) Brucella melitensis (AM or BX)
Brucellosis Brucella suis (US, AB or NX)
Cholera Vibriocholerae (HO)
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae (DK)
Dysentery Shigella dysenteriae,
Glanders Burkholderia mallei (LA)
Listeriosis Listeria monocytogenes (TQ)
Melioidosis Burkholderia pseudomallei (HI)
Plague Yersinia pestis (LE)
Tularemia Francisella tularensis (SR or JT)
List of Biological toxins
Disease Causative agent
Clostridium botulinumbacteria or spores,
Botulinum
and several other Clostridial species. (X or
toxins (A th
XR)
rough G)
Ricin Castor bean(Ricinus communis) (W or WA)
Various marine and brackish cyanobacteria,
Saxi toxin such asAnabaena,Aphanizomenon,
Lyngbya, andCylindrospermopsis(TZ)
Staphyloccoc Staphylococcus aureus(UC or PG)
al enterotox Various marine bacteria, including
in B
Tetrodotoxin Vibrio alginolyticus,
Pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis(PP)
Trichothecen Various species of fungi, includingFusarium
e ,Trichoderma, andStachybotrys
mycotoxins
Anthrax
Anthrax is an acute disease caused by the bacterium
Bacillus anthracis. Most forms of the disease are lethal,
and it affects mostly animals. It is contagious and can be
transmitted through contact or consumption of infected
meat. Deadly in concentrations 1000 smaller than nerve
agents
Inhalation of about 0.08 microgram can be fatal in 4
days if not treated immediately
A photomicrograph of Bacillus
anthracis bacteria using Gram-
Well suited to delivery by missile, bomb, or spray stain technique. (Source: U.S.
Centers for Disease Control
Vaccines are available but must be administered several and Prevention)

months before exposure to provide effective immunity

Post-infection treatment with antibiotics is possible, but
must be administered before acute symptoms are
apparent

19
 Other organisms used as BW agents
Glanders (Burkholderia mallei)
3-5 day incubation period
50% fatality rate without treatment
Low communicability
No vaccine
Pneumonic plague (Yersinia pestis)
2-3 day incubation period
100% fatality rate without treatment
High communicability
Vaccine available
Smallpox (Variola major)
~12 day incubation period
20-40% fatality rate without treatment
High communicability
Vaccine available
Successfully weaponized by USSR, but not US or UK

20
 Toxins Used as BW agents
Botulinum toxin (from Clostridium botulinum)
Essentially the same as Botox for cosmetic injections
Symptoms appear in 1-3 hours
65% fatality rate if untreated
Vaccine available
Ricin (from ricinus communis)
Symptoms appear in 18-24 hours
Very high fatality rate
No vaccine
Derived from castor beans
Trichothecene mycotoxins (from fusarium tricinetum)
Symptoms appear in 1-4 hours
High to moderate fatality rate
No vaccine
Yellow rain toxin weaponized by USSR

21
Biological Weapons
Example
Sep-Oct 2001: Letters with
sophisticated, weaponized anthrax
spores sent to political and media
figures shortly after attacks on World
Trade Center and Pentagon
22 infections, 17 hospitalized, 5
fatalities
Quality and quantity of agent
employed could have killed
thousands with more effective
delivery method
Investigation eventually focused on
former biological weapons expert
Bruce E. Ivins who committed
suicide in July 2008 after FBI
announced plans to indict
Some experts cast serious doubt on
FBIs evidence and case may remain
unsolved Letter accompanying anthrax spores mailed to
NBC anchorman Tom Brokaw (Source: U.S.
Department of Justice)
22
 How is the International Community Working to
Reduce the Biological Threat?
The Geneva Protocol (1925) and the
Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) (1972) prohibit the
use of biological weapons. The BTWC also prohibits the development,
production, and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons.
Of the countries most likely to be technologically capable of producing
biological weapons, only Egypt, Israel, and Syria are not BTWC
members. However, because the BTWC lacks verification and inspection
protocols, the treaty is not capable of monitoring whether its members are
in compliance with their commitments. Thus, the Soviet Union easily
violated the BTWCs prohibitions, maintaining a program with 40
facilities and 60,000 staff despite being a state party to the BTWC.
Strengthening the transparency of biodefense programs and dual-use life
sciences activities, developing monitoring tools, and ensuring the
BTWC's continued relevance in the face of technological innovation
represent ongoing challenges
 The Radiological Threat

The existence of thousands of poorly secured commercial radioactive

sources globally poses an ongoing challenge to international security.
Radiological dispersal devices (RDDs), in which conventional
explosives are used to spread radioactive materials, do not pose the
same high expertise and materials barriers as nuclear weapons.
The acquisition and use of RDDs by terrorists is therefore a high
probability threat. While a radiological attack would be unlikely to
cause large numbers of casualties, it could incite mass panic, damage
economic commerce in affected areas, and require expensive
radioactive decontamination procedures.
Effective response procedures and public education campaigns have
the potential to mitigate public reactions in the event of an attack.
Additionally, the international community can work to prevent an
attack by continuing to secure vulnerable radioactive sources globally.
Radiological Weapons

Radiological weapons use ionizing radiation

Alpha or beta particles, gamma or x-rays, etc.
Radioactive materials
Radioactive sources: Used in medicine, food irradiation,
research, industrial gauging, oil-prospecting, etc.
Spent nuclear fuel
Nuclear waste
Means of delivery
Radiation Emission Devices (REDs): Expose targets to
radiation from source
Inhalation, ingestion, or immersion (I3): disperse
aerosolized particles, contaminate water supplies
Radiological Dispersal Devices (RDDs or Dirty
Bombs) use conventional explosives to disperse
radioactive material over a wide area

25
 Radiological Weapons
Radioisotopes considered to pose greatest
risks for radiological terrorism include:
Americium-241 (241Am), alpha and gamma
emitter
Californium-252 (252Cf), alpha and gamma
emitter
Cesium-137 (137Cs), beta emitter
Cobalt-60 (60Co), beta and gamma emitter
Abandoned Soviet radioisotope thermoelectric
Iodine-131 (131I), beta and gamma emitter generator generator containing Strontium-90
(Source: Finnmark Regional Government,
Iridium-192 (192Ir), beta and gamma emitter Norway)

Polonium-210 (210Po), alpha, beta and gamma

emitter
Plutonium-238 (238Pu), alpha and gamma emitter
Plutonium-239 (239Pu), alpha, beta and gamma
emitter
Radium-226 (226Ra), alpha and gamma emitter
Strontium-90 (90Sr), beta and gamma emitter

26
 Effects of Ionizing Radiation on the Human
Body

Many of the same radioactive sources used to benefit humanity

in the medical and industrial fields could pose serious human
health risks in the wrong hands.

Some of the radioactive sources used in these fields, such as

strontium-90, cobalt-60, cesium-137 and iridium-192, often emit
high-energy beta particles or gammas (high-energy photons).

While human skin provides a natural shield against

alpha particles, both beta particles and gamma rays can penetrate
human skin and potentially cause cell damage.
 Most beta particles can be stopped by a layer of clothing, but
much more extensive shielding, such as concrete or lead, is
required to protect the human body from gamma rays.
Although alpha particles are the easiest type of ionizing
radiation to shield against, they can cause more extensive
damage inside the human body (if, for example, ingested or
inhaled), than do beta particles or gamma rays.
The effects of ionizing radiation on the human body depend not
only on the type of radiation, but also on the sources strength,
the distance of the source from the individual, the material and
amount of shielding between the source and the individual, the
energy per particle or photon, and characteristics of the affected
individual including age and health.
 The Threat of Radiological Terrorism

A potential attacker might acquire radioactive material by locating an orphaned

source, stealing a source from a licensed user, or illicitly purchasing a source.
The attacker would be looking for a source that was highly radioactive,
portable, and easy to disperse.

There are several ways terrorists could maliciously spread illegally obtained
radioactive materials. The possible use of conventional explosives to scatter
radioactive material in a radiological dispersal device (RDD) has gained
widespread media attention.

An RDD or dirty bomb would require only minimal technological expertise.

The effectiveness of an RDD would depend on the type of radioactive material,
the size of the particles and how easily they disperse, the amount of material
and explosives, and weather conditions. An RDD would be unlikely to cause
many casualties, and most if not all casualties would be caused by the
conventional explosives rather than the radioactive material itself.
 It would be likely to cause widespread public panic and
significant economic losses. This is why RDDs are
sometimes referred to as weapons of mass disruption.

Terrorists could also carry out a radiological attack without

using explosives. Radiation emission devices (REDs) emit
high-levels of radioactivity from a stationary radioactive
source. Terrorists might also attempt to contaminate the
food or water supply with alpha emitters, such as
Polonium-210, though this technique has only so far been
used in targeted assassinations. In November 2006, Po-210
was used to murder former KGB agent Alexander
Litvinenko, who died three weeks after ingesting a fatal
dose of the radioisotope.
 How is the International Community Working to
Decrease the Radiological Threat?
Many countries have taken measures individually and collectively to
decrease the threat of radiological terrorism by securing commercial
radiological sources.
One of the most well-known initiatives in this area is the U.S.-led
Global Threat Reduction Initiative, which has completed physical
protection upgrades at over 960 radiological sites globally since 2004.
Other important preventative programs, for example the
Second Line of Defense Program implemented by the U.S. National
Nuclear Security Administration, include measures such as regulatory
controls on radiological source transfers and radiation detectors at
borders.
Also, the IAEA has established a Code of Conduct on the Safety and
Security of Radioactive Sources. Over the long-term, the development
and implementation of a secure life cycle for radiological materials
would help minimize the risks of legitimate commercial applications.
Effects of Radiological Weapons

Few fatal casualties likely from

ionizing radiation, especially in the
near-term
However, the social, psychological,
and financial costs could be great
Fears of radioactivity could cause
widespread panic, long term fear of
contamination
Would hinder emergency response
efforts
Not weapons of mass destruction,
32
Radiological Example: Goiania
Accident
Accidental radiological contamination incident in Goiania,
Brazil, 1987
~1375 ci (93 grams) Cs-137 chloride source
Stolen from teletherapy equipment in abandoned hospital
4 dead (3 individuals who handled source plus one of their
children)
50 hospitalized
200 contaminated
130,000 emergency room visits (10% of city population)
Timemagazine has identified the accident as one of the
world's "worstnuclear disasters" and the
International Atomic Energy Agencycalled it "one of the
world's worst radiological incidents"

33
 Nuclear Weapons Threat
Many of the countries with smaller nuclear arsenals, such as
India and Pakistan, are actively engaged in regional conflicts,
making the possibility of regional nuclear war a concern.
North Korea illicitly acquired nuclear weapons, and other
countries, including Iran and Syria, have violated their
nuclear safeguards commitments and are suspected of
covertly pursuing nuclear weapons capabilities.
In the post-9/11 world, the potential for catastrophic nuclear
terrorism is also a serious threat.
A number of efforts by governments, international
organizations, and non-governmental organizations are
underway to attempt to mitigate the nuclear threat.
 Who Has Nuclear Weapons?
Nine countries are known or widely considered to possess
nuclear weapons: China, France, India, Israel, North Korea,
Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
The United States and Russia possess approximately 94% of
the worlds nuclear weapons.
The continued existence of large deployed nuclear arsenals in
many of the nuclear possessing states poses risks of accidental
or unauthorized use.
South Africa voluntarily disclosed and dismantled its nuclear
weapons program, and following the dissolution of the Soviet
Union, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine voluntarily
transferred the Soviet nuclear weapons on their territories to
Russia and joined the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states.
Nuclear Weapons
Nuclear weapons have tremendous explosive power,
equivalent to thousands or millions of tons of TNT (a
high explosive formed from toluene by
substitution of three hydrogen atoms with nitro
groups)
All nuclear explosives require fissile material high-
enriched uranium (HEU) or plutonium (Pu)
If a terrorist organization could somehow obtain enough
fissile material, building a simple nuclear explosive would
not be difficult
However, obtaining or producing fissile material is a
significant technical and industrial challenge
This is the main barrier to the use of nuclear weapons by
terrorists

36
Nuclear Weapon Types
Two basic types of first-generation fission weapons
Gun-type (can only use HEU)
Implosion-type (can use either HEU or plutonium)
These types could potentially be built by terrorists
More sophisticated types require additional research and
testing
Boosted (uses fusion to boost power of fission weapon)
Thermonuclear (uses fusion, hydrogen bomb)
These types are likely beyond the capacity of terrorist
organizations to build, though they could potentially be
bought or stolen

37
Bomb Basics
The simplest type of nuclear
weapon is a gun-type fission
weapon.
A gun-type weapon uses chemical
explosives to shoot one mass of HEU
into another at high speed, much as a
bullet is shot from a gun
When the two masses collide, they
form a critical mass which produces a
nuclear explosion
Require a relatively large amount of
HEU (probably at least 25 kg with a
simple design). 38
 Hiroshima Bomb Little
Boy
Little Boy was the
codename for the
type of atomic
bomb
droppedon the
Japanese city
ofHiroshima on
6 August 1945.

Postwar mockup of the Little Boy bomb. (Image credit: U.S. Department of Defense)

Gun-type Easiest to design and build

Hiroshima bomb was never tested
About 13 kiloton explosive yield.
39
Gun-Type Weapon:
Inside Little Boy (conjectural)

40
Implosion Weapons
An implosion-type fission weapon is a more
sophisticated fission weapon.
An implosion-type weapon uses a complex
arrangement of explosives to rapidly compress one or
more pieces of fissile material into a critical mass.
Typically require much less fissile material than
gun-type weapons
A well-designed implosion weapon would require only
about 8 kg of highly-enriched uranium or 4 kg of
plutonium.
This means that implosion weapons can be smaller
and lighter in weight than gun-type weapons
(especially important for delivery by missile)

41
Nagasaki Bomb Fat Man
Fat Man" was
the codename
for the type of
atomic
bombthat was
detonated over
the Japanese
city of
Nagasaki by
the United
States on 9
August 1945. It
was the second
Postwar mockup of the Fat Man bomb. (Image credit: U.S. Department of Defense) of the only two
About 22 kilotons explosive yield nuclear
weapons ever
Required testing to prove concept
usedin
More efficient design than Little Boy warfare, the
42 first being Little
Implosion-Type Weapon:
Inside Fat Man (conjectural)

43
Thermonuclear Weapons
A thermonuclear weapon derives most of its
explosive force from nuclear fusion
In a thermonuclear weapon, radiation
from a fission explosion heats and
compresses deuterium and tritium,
which then undergo fusion
Thermonuclear weapons are
significantly more difficult to design,
build, and maintain than fission
weapons
Thermonuclear weapons can be
extremely powerful, with yields
measured in megatons
44
 What is a Nuclear Weapon, and Why is it Different from a Conventional Weapon?
Often referred to as weapons of mass destruction, nuclear weapons are
fundamentally different from conventional weapons due to their potential, if
used in sufficient numbers, to literally destroy life on earth.
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device which relies on nuclear rather than
chemical reactions, allowing it to harness a far greater amount of energy than a
conventional explosive.
The nuclear reactions integral to nuclear weapons can be derived from fission,
or a combination of fission and fusion (called a thermonuclear weapon).
A sufficient amount of fissile material, such as highly enriched uranium or
plutonium, is required to construct a nuclear weapon. The destructive power of
a nuclear weapon comes from the blast (pressure shock wave), thermal
radiation (heat), and nuclear radiation (prompt and delayed). Because the
production of fissile materials is a complex process requiring extensive
resources, efforts to secure global stocks of highly enriched uranium and
plutonium against theft or diversion are key to reducing the threats of nuclear
terrorism and proliferation.
 Testing, Delivery, and Use of Nuclear Weapons
Countries with nuclear weapons have conducted approximately
2,055 known tests, but nuclear weapons have only been used
twice in warfare, both times during World War II.
On 6 August 1945 the United States dropped an atomic bomb on
the Japanese city of Hiroshima, and three days later dropped a
second bomb on Nagasaki, Japan.
To deliver nuclear weapons, a countrys war plans typically rely
on either bomber aircraft (the oldest and least reliable delivery
system), or ballistic missiles (which may be launched from land-
based silos or continuously patrolling submarines).
Non-state actors without an advanced delivery system could
physically transport an improvised nuclear device (IND) to the
target site, or detonate a nuclear device at the place of assembly.
 How is the Peaceful Use of Nuclear
Technologies Linked with Proliferation?
As more countries invest in civilian nuclear infrastructure,
particularly nuclear power, the trade in dual-use goods (which
can be used for peaceful or military purposes), increases.
Nuclear power reactors, while they provide an important
source of energy, also produce plutonium in their spent fuel
that could potentially be used for weapons purposes.
Some research reactors and medical isotope producers continue
to rely on the use of highly enriched uranium, which is a
weapons-usable material.
Determining how to encourage the peaceful use of nuclear
technologies while preventing the further proliferation of
nuclear weapons is therefore an ongoing policy challenge.
 How is the International Community Working to Reduce
the Nuclear Threat?
Recognizing the dangers both of existing nuclear arsenals and of new countries
acquiring nuclear weapons, the international community has established several
treaties and regimes dedicated to nonproliferation and disarmament.
The 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) is the
cornerstone of these efforts. The NPT recognizes five nuclear weapon states (
France, China, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States), who are
obliged to work towards general and complete disarmament, and 184
non-nuclear weapon states, who must refrain from pursuing nuclear weapons,
but are permitted to possess peaceful nuclear programs if sensitive activities are
safeguarded by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) .
India, Pakistan, and Israel have never joined the NPT, and North Korea ratified
the NPT in 1985, but unilaterally withdrew in 2003 before testing nuclear
devices in 2006, 2009, and 2013.
Both Syria and Iran have undertaken questionable nuclear activities and been
referred to the United Nations Security Council due to judgments of
noncompliance with their IAEA safeguards agreements.
 Reducing the Threat of Nuclear Terrorism
The possibility that non-state actors might steal or illicitly purchase highly enriched uranium or
plutonium and use them to construct an improvised nuclear device remains an ongoing concern.

While the 9/11 terrorist attacks gave policymakers a renewed sense of urgency, the need for nuclear
threat reduction efforts first rose to prominence following the collapse of the Soviet Union (USSR) in
1991. Concerned that political and economic instability in the former USSR would lead to the theft or
illicit trafficking of nuclear materials or weapons, U.S. Senators Sam Nunn and Richard Lugar founded
the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) Program to aid the successor states with nuclear security.

The United States subsequently expanded its threat reduction efforts under programs such as the
Global Threat Reduction Initiative, which is working to reduce the civil use of HEU globally.

Initiatives such as UNSCR 1540, which requires all states to implement measures aimed at preventing
non-state actors from acquiring NBC weapons, related materials, and their means of delivery, aim to fill
this gap. In 2009, the U.S. Obama administration announced efforts to lock down all nuclear weapons-
usable materials in four years, convening a multilateral Nuclear Security Summit attended by 47
countries in 2010 to advance this goal.

A follow-on summit occurred in Seoul, South Korea in 2012, with a third scheduled for 2014 in the
Netherlands. While all of these programs have made significant progress in reducing the nuclear
terrorism threat, continued and enhanced international cooperation will be required to succeed in
keeping nuclear materials out of the hands of terrorists.
Nuclear Weapons Effects
Blast
Thermal pulse
Thermal radiation
Prompt radiation (neutrons, X-rays,
gamma rays)
Electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
Fallout (radioactive particles
propelled into atmosphere)

50
 Nuclear Weapons Example:
U.S. used gun-type
Hiroshima
fission weapon on
Hiroshima, Japan,
August 6, 1945
City center (ground
zero) completely
destroyed
About 70,000 people
killed immediately or
died shortly afterwards Devastation after Hiroshima bombing

from blast, heat, fires,

and prompt radiation
Estimates of total deaths
by 1950 from burns,
cancer, radiation
sickness, etc. range
from 90,000 to 200,000
Hiroshima bombing casualties
Woman suffering from thermal burns
in kimono pattern
51
 International Controls on
CBRN
International efforts to control chemical and
biological weapons began after First World War
Geneva Protocol (1925)
Bans use in war of chemical weapons and bacteriological means
of warfare
No verification provisions
Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (1975)
Prohibits possession or use of biological weapons
No verification but options for monitoring have been proposed
Chemical Weapons Convention (1993)
Prohibits possession, production, and use of chemical weapons
Requires declaration and destruction of CW stockpiles and
disarmament or dismantling of CW production facilities
Strong provisions for verification

52
 International Controls on
CBRN
Efforts toward nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament began
shortly after Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Test-ban treaties and other initiatives in 1950s and 1960s
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) (1968)
Restricts possession of nuclear weapons to five states that tested
before 1 January 1967
China
France
United Kingdom
United States
Russia (legal successor to Soviet Union)
Prohibits possession of nuclear weapons by all other parties
Guarantees parties the right to peaceful use of nuclear energy
Obligates all parties to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective
measures relating to the cessation of the nuclear arms race and to
nuclear disarmament.

53
 International Controls on
CBRN
Only four states are not parties to NPT
Israel
India
Pakistan
North Korea (withdrew in 2003)
All are known or suspected to possess nuclear
weapons but none is eligible to accede to NPT as
nuclear-weapons state
Compliance with NPT verified via IAEA
safeguards
Treaty extended indefinitely in 1995
Review conferences ever five years since 1975
54
 International Controls on
CBRN
Bilateral treaties limit numbers of U.S. and Russian nuclear
weapons
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties (SALT) (1972 and 1979)
Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) (1987)
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (START) (1991 and 1993)
Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (Treaty of Moscow or SORT)
(2002)
Treaty on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of
Strategic Offensive Arms (NewSTART) (2010)
Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty (1996) prohibits all nuclear
explosions, but is not yet in force
Proposed future limitations on nuclear weapons
Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty
Nuclear Weapons Convention

55
 International Controls on
CBRN
Supply-side organizations seek to control
proliferation of nuclear weapons and CBW
Nuclear Suppliers Group
Zangger Committee
Australia Group
Other instruments obligate parties to take
measures to prevent non-state actors from
acquiring or using nuclear, chemical, or
biological weapons
Nuclear Terrorism Convention
Physical Protection Convention
UN Resolutions 1540, 1673, and 1810

56
 Combating Nuclear
Smuggling
Deterring access to and availability of nuclear and
other radioactive materials is critical to combating
nuclear terrorist capabilities
Generally two types of programs:
secure nuclear weapons, nuclear materials, and other
radioactive materials worldwide
detect and prevent illicit trafficking of these materials
Combating nuclear smuggling requires active and
continual monitoring of
nuclear material facilities
border locations
smuggling organizations (organized crime)
countries of interest

4/17/17 57
 Type of Materials Smuggled
Nuclear Materials:
material that can be used
Dual-Use Materials:
for nuclear fuel or in the
material that has both
construction of nuclear
weapons commercial and military
or other strategic
uranium,plutonium,
applications
americium, neptunium,
tritium, lithium, beryllium,
thorium
zirconium, etc.

Radioisotopes:
Other Materials:
radioactive isotopes used
Scam materials,
in industrial and medical
applications containers, lead, etc.
Cesium-137,Cobalt-60,
4/17/17Strontium-90, etc. 58
Mission of the Portal Monitor
Radiation portal monitors (RPM) play
a vital role in combating the illicit
trafficking of radioactive material.
Borders
Port
Facilities

4/17/17 59
 What are We Looking For?
Materials of interest that can be used in the production of a
RDD or an IND
Characteristics
Gamma
Some sources are relatively high energy emitters used in industrial
operations: Cs-137, Co-60, Ir-192
Special Nuclear Material (SNM) typically have low energy gamma
emissions
Neutrons
Some industrial sources use Cf-252 , Am or Be
SNM, especially Pu, emit neutrons
Beta
Can a portal see Beta radiation?
Special case: Sr-90.
Used extensively in the Former Soviet Union as Radioisotope Thermoelectric
Generators
Pure beta emitter
Can we see it with a portal?
4/17/17 60
 Environmental Concerns
Portals must be designed to survive the
environment
Weather
Rapid decreases in temperature
can crack NaI
PVT is more rugged and less
susceptible to environmental
changes
Photomultipliers can drift
(amplification can change) with
increasing and decreasing
temperature
This can affect alarm settings
Working environment can be rough
Notice that in the figures the
portals each have yellow-
metal/concrete columns protecting
them. This is to protect the
detectors from being hit by
vehicles.
Even so, portals are designed to
4/17/17 with stand some level of impact 61
Additional packaging can affect
 Border RPMs
Typically fixed locations
Located at choke points
Speeds should be reduced
while passing through portals
Traffic controls
Detection Capabilities
Neutron
Gamma
Question: How could the
other portals react if you
have a strong source in
another lane?

4/17/17 62
 Summary
Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons (CBRN) pose special
challenges for nuclear security
These weapons are often referred to as weapons of mass destruction (WMD) but
except for nuclear weapons, many types could be used on a small scale or to
produce non-lethal effects
Chemical weapons (CW) are banned by international treaty but remain a serious
threat for use by non-state actors
Biological weapons (BW) also banned but the technology for developing BW is
widespread
States have not used radiological weapons but a number of high-risk radioactive
sources could be used by criminals or terrorists
Possession of nuclear weapons is restricted to a few states but the possibility for
non-state actors to obtain and use these weapons remains.
International efforts to control and eventually eliminate CBRN weapons are
ongoing, but these control regimes have many limitations and gaps
CBRN will therefore pose continuing threat to nuclear security in the foreseeable
future

63