PEMBOLEHUBAH,

TAHAP PENGUKURAN &

UJIAN STATISTIKAL
Section 2.1

What are the Types of Data?

 In Every Statistical Study:

Questions are posed

Characteristics are observed
 Characteristics are Variables

A Variable is any characteristic

that is recorded for subjects in
the study
 Variation in Data

Theterminology variable
highlights the fact that data
values vary.
Example: Students in a Statistics
Class

Variables:
Age
GPA
Major
Smoking Status

 Data values are called
observations
Each observation can be:

Quantitative

Categorical
 Categorical Variable

Each observation belongs to one of a

set of categories

Examples:
Gender (Male or Female)
Religious Affiliation (Catholic, Jewish,
)
Place of residence (Apt, Condo, )
Belief in Life After Death (Yes or No)
 Quantitative Variable

Observations take numerical values

Examples:
Age
Number of siblings
Annual Income
Number of years of education
completed
 Graphs and Numerical
Summaries
Describe the main features of
a variable
For Quantitative variables:
key features are center and
spread
For Categorical variables:
key feature is the percentage
in each of the categories
 Quantitative Variables

Discrete Quantitative
Variables

and
Continuous Quantitative
Variables
Discrete and Continuous Variables

Discrete variables are variables in which there are no

intermediate values possible.
e.g: The number of phone calls you receive per day. You
cannot receive 6.3 phone calls.

Continuous variables are everything else; any variable

that can theoretically have values in between points
e.g., between 153 and 154 lbs. for instance.
 Discrete

Aquantitative variable is
discrete if its possible values
form a set of separate
numbers such as 0, 1, 2, 3,
 Examples of discrete variables

Number of pets in a household

Number of children in a family
Number of foreign languages
spoken
 Continuous

Aquantitative variable is
continuous if its possible
values form an interval
Examples of Continuous Variables

Height
Weight
Age
Amount of time it takes to
complete an assignment
 Identify the following variable as
categorical or quantitative:

Choice of diet
(vegetarian or non-vegetarian):
a. Categorical
b. Quantitative
 Identify the following variable as categorical
or quantitative:

Number of people you have known who

have been elected to political office:

a. Categorical
b. Quantitative
 Identify the following variable as
discrete or continuous:

The number of people in line at a box

office to purchase theater tickets:

a. Continuous
b. Discrete
 Identify the following
variable as discrete or
continuous:
The weight of a dog:
a. Continuous
b. Discrete
 Maklumat Apa yang akan dikumpul?
Jenis2 Data Pengukuran
Instrumen ialah satu alat ukur untuk mengukur,
memerhati, atau mendokumentasikan data
bagi pembolehubah kuantitatif.
Jenis2 Instrumen
Pengukuran Pencapaian/performance (cth.
Ujian Pencapaian)
Pengukuran Sikap/Attitudinal (sikap/perasaan
terhadap matapelajaran sains)
Pengukuran Tingkahlaku (Pemerhatian
tingkahlaku)
Pengukuran Fakta (dokumen, records)

Educational Research 2e:

Creswell
 Kaitan ant. Pengumpulan data data dgn
pembolehubah dan persoalan kajian

Aliran Aktiviti Contoh

Mengenalpasti Pembolehubah Efikasi-Kendiri utk. Belajar dari
Rakan
Tahap keyakinan seseorang
Mendefinasikan Pembolehubah secara
individu yang mereka dapat
Operasi
memepelajari sesuatu jika diajar
oleh rakan
Mengenalpasti data 13 item utk self-efficacy
(ukuran, pemerhatian,
dokumen dgn attitudinal scale dari Bergin
soalan/item dan skala) (1989)

Skor utk setiap item mempunyai

Mengumpul Data
menggunakan instrumen julat dari 0-10 dgn 10 ialah
yg memberikan skor dlm Berkeyakinan Sepenuhnya.
bentuk nombor.
Educational Research 2e:
Creswell
 Instrumen Apakah yang akan anda
Gunakan? Mendapatkan atau Membina
Instrumen
Lihat dalam published journal articles
Pencarian ERIC search dgn
menggunakan term instruments
dan topik kajian
ERIC web site for Evaluation and
Assessment
Dapatkan panduan kpd. Ujian2 yang
ada dipasaran.
Bina sendiri instrumen

Educational Research 2e:

Creswell
 VARIABLE

A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can

exist in different amounts or types

FOUR TYPES OF VARIABLES

Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Controlled Variable
Extraneous Variable
 VARIABLE
Independent Variable
The variable being manipulated or changed

Dependent Variable
The observed result of the independent variable being
manipulated.
The event studied and expected to change whenever the
independent variable is altered.

Controlled Variable
They are the variables that are kept constant to prevent
their influence on the effect of the independent variable
on the dependent.

Extraneous Variable
Variable that might affect the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables
 Independent variables answer the question "What
do I change?

Dependent variables answer the question "What do

I observe?

Controlled variables answer the question "What do I

keep the same?"

Extraneous variables answer the question "What

uninteresting variables might mediate the effect of
the IV on the DV
Question Independent Dependent Controlled Variables
Variable (What I Variables (What I keep the same)
change) (What I
observe)
Does Amount of
fertilizer fertilizer measured Growth of the Same size pot for each plant
make a in grams plant measured Same type of plant in each
plant grow by its height pot
bigger? Growth of the Same type and amount of
plant measured soil in each pot
by the number of Same amount of water and
leaves light
See Measuring Make measurements of
Plant Growth for growth for each plant at the
more ways to same time
measure plant "The many variables above
growth can each change how fast a
plant grows, so to insure a fair
test of the fertilizer, each of
them must be kept the same
for every pot."
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
The level of measurement refers to the relationship
among the values that are assigned to the attributes for
a variable.

There are four types of measurements or

levels of measurement or measurement scales used in
statistics:

Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio.
Nominal

variable measured on a "nominal" scale is a variable that

does not really have any evaluative distinction.

One value is really not any greater than another.

The numerical values just "name" the attribute uniquely.

A good example of a nominal variable is sex (or gender).

- Information in a data set on sex is usually coded as 0 or
1, 1 indicating male and 0 indicating female (or the other
way around--0 for male, 1 for female).

- 1 in this case is an arbitrary value and it is not any

greater or better than 0. There is only a nominal
difference between 0 and 1.

With nominal variables, there is a qualitative difference

between values, not a quantitative one.
Nominal Scale

Example:

Jersey numbers in basketball are measures at the

nominal level.

A player with number 30 is not more of anything than a

player with number 15, and is certainly not twice
whatever number 15 is.
Ordinal
Something measured on an "ordinal" scale does have an
evaluative connotation.

One value is greater or larger or better than the other.

Example: Product A is preferred over product B, and

therefore A receives a value of 1 and B receives a value
of 2.

Another example: Academic Qualification might be

rating on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 representing the
highest academic qualification.

With ordinal scales, we only know that 2 is better than 1

or 10 is better than 9; we do not know by how much. It
may vary. The distance between 1 and 2 maybe shorter
than between 9 and 10.
Interv
al
A variable measured on an interval scale gives
information about more or betterness as ordinal
scales do, but interval variables have an equal
distance between each value.

The distance between 1 and 2 is equal to the

distance between 9 and 10.

Temperature using Celsius or Fahrenheit is a good

example, there is the exact same difference between
100 degrees and 90 as there is between 42 and 32.
Ratio

Something measured on a ratio scale has the same

properties that an interval scale has except.

With a ratio scaling, there is an absolute zero point.

Weight is the example, 0 lbs. is a meaningful absence

of weight.
 Paras Ukuran Sifat
Data
Nominal Pengkelasan objek atau orang dan sebagainya
kepada kategori yang diskrit mengikut sifat
kualitatif.
Ukuran paling asas.
Contoh: Pembolehubah jantina dikategori
kepada lelaki dan perempuan.
Ordinal Pengkelasan objek atau orang dan sebagainya
mengikut urutan keutamaan atau rank
Contoh: Tahap kelulusan akademik, persepsi.

Jeda/Sela Mempunyai urutan atau rank serta wujud

(interval) perbezaan antara jeda tetapi tiada mutlak
kosong
Contoh: Markah pelajar, IQ, sikap, minat.
Nisbah (ratio) Mempunyai urutan atau rank serta wujud
perbezaan antara jeda dan mempunyai mutlak
kosong
Contoh: Tinggi, Umur, Berat
Why is Level of Measurement Important?

First, knowing the level of measurement helps you

decide how to interpret the data from that variable.

- When you know that a measure is nominal, then you

know that the numerical values are just short codes for
the longer names.

Second, knowing the level of measurement helps you

decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on the
values that were assigned.

- If a measure is nominal, then you know that you would

never average the data values
 P. Ukuran Sifat Tujuan Ujian Yg
Data Sesuai
Nominal Pengkelasan Perkaitan Khi Kuasa
mengikut pembolehubah Dua
kategori
Ordinal Mengikut Perkaitan Speraman
urutan pembolehubah rho
keutamaan Mann-
atau rank Whitney
Wilcoxon
 P. Sifat Tujuan Ujian Yg Sesuai
Ukuran
Data
Jeda Mempunyai Perbezaan Min satu pembolehubah Ujian-t
(interval) urutan atau rank bersandar berdasarkan satu
serta wujud pembolehubah tak bersandar (2
perbezaan antara kategori)
jeda tetapi tiada Perbezaan Min satu pembolehubah ANOVA Satu-
mutlak kosong bersandar berdasarkan satu Hala
pembolehubah tak bersandar (3 kategori
atau lebih)
Perbezaan Min satu pembolehubah ANOVA Dua-Hala
bersandar berdasarkan dua
pembolehubah tak bersandar MANOVA
Perbezaan Min bagi dua atau lebih
pembolehubah bersandar berdasarkan
dua atau lebih pembolehubah tak Korelasi Pearson
bersandar
Korelasi antara pembolehubah Regrasi
Sumbangan pembolehubah tak Berganda
bersandar ke atas pembolehubah
bersandar

Nisbah Mempunyai Sama seperti untuk skala Jeda Sama seperti

(ratio) urutan/ rank serta untuk skala Jeda
wujud perbezaan
antara jeda dan
mutlak kosong