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Introduction
Turbulent flows are characterized by fluctuating
velocity fields
These fluctuations are too computationally expensive
to simulate directly in practical engineering
calculations.
Instead, the instantaneous (exact) governing equations
can be time-averaged, resulting in a modified set of
equations that are computationally less expensive to
solve.
However, the modified equations contain additional
unknown variables, and turbulence models are needed
to determine these variables in terms of known
quantities.
Introduction
The instantaneous component is
ui U i ui
D 1 t C1 t U i U j U i
Dt x j x
x j k x j x
i j
2
2
t U i
2
C2 2
k x j xi
The turbulent viscosity is a function of velocity
scale and length scale as in the mixing length
approach
t C l
where velocity scale and length scale are given by:
32
k
k , 12
l
Then the turbulent viscosity can be
calculated from the relation:
2
k
t C
The model constants are
Limitations of k model
Poor performance for flows with large extra strain
(e.g. curved boundary layer, swirling flow).
The predictions are not good for three-
dimensional flows.
The model needs modifications to include
anisotropy, curvature and rotation effects, and
turbulence amplifications through the shock
wave.
The Standard k Model
Wilcox k Model
The standard model is an empirical model based on
model transport equations for the turbulence kinetic
energy (k) and the specific dissipation rate
It incorporates modifications for low-Reynolds-
number effects, compressibility, and shear flow
spreading.
The Wilcox model predicts free shear flow spreading
rates that are in close agreement with measurements
for far wakes, mixing layers, and plane, round, and
radial jets, and is thus applicable to wall-bounded
flows and free shear flows.
The - Equation
D 1 t U i U j U i
t
2
Dt x j x j k x j xi x j
2
U 1 u
u ln Ey p ;
k
;
u C
3
u
y
Limitations of the Wall Function
Approach
The wall function approach becomes less
reliable when the flow conditions depart too
much from the ideal conditions underlying the
wall functions. Examples are:
Pervasive low-Reynolds-number or near-wall effects (e.g., flow
through a small gap or highly viscous, low-velocity fluid flow)
Massive transpiration through the wall (blowing/suction)
Severe pressure gradients leading to boundary layer separations
Strong body forces (e.g., flow near rotating disks, buoyancy-
driven flows)
High three-dimensionality in the near-wall region (e.g., spiral
flow, strongly skewed 3D boundary layers)
The low-Reynolds-number-modeling
method
In these models the equations are valid
throughout the laminar, semi-laminar, and
fully turbulent regions.
The near-wall mesh should be fine enough to
be able to resolve the laminar sub-layer.
However, the restriction that the near-wall
mesh must be sufficiently fine everywhere
might impose too large a computational
requirement.
Wall damping needs to be applied to ensure
that viscous stresses take over from turbulent
Reynolds stresses at low Reynolds numbers
and in the viscous sub-layer adjacent to solid
walls
You should have at least 10 cells within the
viscosity-affected near-wall region to be able
to resolve the mean velocity and turbulent
quantities in that region