Loss due to moisture in

air.
Heat gained by boiling water
40% Loss due to moisture in
fuel.
Fuel Energy
Loss due to combustion
100% generated moisture.
Hot gas
Dry Exhaust Gas Losses
~ 4.5%

Flue gas

Heat loss from furnace

Heat gained by
surface.
superheater & reheater
Unburned carbon losses. 40%
Incomplete combustion
losses.
Heat gained by economizer &
Loss due to hot ash.
air preheater
12%
 SMOKE METERS

Photoelectric
Smoke particles encounter light beam
Beam scatters to a photocell creating a current
Better for larger particles (smoldering)
Ionization
Particles attach to ionized particles creating a
detectable change in current
Better for smaller particles (flaming)
SMOKE METERS
 The ionization of air by the radioactive particle
causes a very small flow of electrical current.
When smoke from a fire enters the chamber,
its presence causes a reduction in the current's
flow.
Americium 241,
which emits
alpha particles
that collide with
the oxygen and
nitrogen in the
air and to create
ions.
Photoelectric smoke detectors use the principle of scattered or
reflected light to indicate the presence of visual smoke.

They work much like the

automatic eyes used to
open doors. When there's
no smoke, the chamber is
dark. The light shines
across the chamber and is
received in a light trap on
the far side.
When smoke is present in the chamber, a photocell located at
right angles to the light source senses the light scattered off the
smoke particles and, at a certain level of illumination, triggers the
alarm horn
SPECTROMETRY
 MASS-TO-CHARGE RATIO

Mathematically as m/z (or m/e). For example, if an

ion has a mass of 18 units and a charge of 1+, its
m/z value is 18. If an ion has a mass of 36 units and
a 2+ charge, its m/z value is also 18. Most of the
ions moving from the ionization chamber to the
mass analyzer have lost a single electron, so they
have a charge of 1+. That means the m/z value of
most ions passing through a mass spectrometer is
the same as the mass of the ion.
Gas chromatography (GC), is a common type of
chromatography used in analytical chemistry for
separating and analyzing compounds that can be
vaporized without decomposition. Typical uses of
GC include testing the purity of a particular
substance, or separating the different components
of a mixture (the relative amounts of such
components can also be determined). In some
situations, GC may help in identifying a compound.
In preparative chromatography, GC can be used to
prepare pure compounds from a mixture
Carrier gas
The carrier gas must be chemically inert.
Commonly used gases include nitrogen, helium,
argon, and carbon dioxide. The choice of carrier gas
is often dependent upon the type of detector which
is used. The carrier gas system also contains a
molecular sieve to remove water and other
impurities.
The injector can be used in one of two modes; split
or splitless. The injector contains a heated
chamber containing a glass liner into which the
sample is injected through the septum. The carrier
gas enters the chamber and can leave by three
routes (when the injector is in split mode). The
sample vapourises to form a mixture of carrier gas,
vapourised solvent and vapourised solutes. A
proportion of this mixture passes onto the column,
but most exits through the split outlet. The septum
purge outlet prevents septum bleed components
from entering the column.
There are two general types of column, packed
and capillary (also known as open tubular).
Capillary columns have an internal diameter of a few
tenths of a millimeter. They can be one of two types;
wall-coated open tubular (WCOT) or support-coated
open tubular (SCOT). Wall-coated columns consist of
a capillary tube whose walls are coated with liquid
stationary phase. In support-coated columns, the
inner wall of the capillary is lined with a thin layer of
support material such as diatomaceous earth, onto
which the stationary phase has been adsorbed. SCOT
columns are generally less efficient than WCOT
columns. Both types of capillary column are more
efficient than packed columns.
 Detection Systems

Characteristics of the Ideal Detector:

The ideal detector for gas chromatography has the
following characteristics:
1. Adequate sensitivity
2. Good stability and reproducibility.
3. A linear response to solutes that extends
over several orders of magnitude.
4. A temperature range from room
temperature to at least 400oC.
Electron-Capture Detectors(ECD)